Universal and specialized international organizations. The UN is a universal international organization. History of the UN
You wondered: "How many grams in a karate?" Not everyone will answer this question. Perhaps a friend showed off a 3-carat diamond ring, but you don’t know how to convert grams to carats, or are you just suffering from broadening your horizons? Then sit down comfortably and read with pleasure.
The word "carat" is familiar to many. At least, it is well known and is first of all associated with the very friends of girls - diamonds.
If you are not an expert in the field precious stones and not a walking encyclopedia, then it is quite possible that in your mind the ideas about this concept are confused. This often occurs, and this is due to the long history of the term, coming from the historical depths of the countries of the East.
First, you need to unequivocally define what, in fact, a carat is. A carat is a measure of weight, not size, shape, or even beauty. Why equals weight carat?
AT different time in various countries, the carat had certain values, ranging from 0.1 to 0.25 g rounded. In 1907, the current effective number was established for him, equal to one fifth of a gram, or 200 mg. That is, 1 gram of a stone will equal 5 carats.
Is carat a diamond's best friend?
Often people, thinking about how many grams is 1 carat, think that we are talking only about diamonds. Is it so?
No, carat is the measure of weight for all gemstones.
And that is why, a carat (that is, 0.2 grams of weight) of gemstones may differ in appearance. One carat of diamond, emerald or sapphire looks different.
If we recall a little the course of school physics, namely the fact that the density of substances differs, everything falls into place.
The same stones of 1 carat may differ in appearance, as there are more than 250 ways of cutting.
The ratio of grams - dimensions
In jewelry, there are tables that correspond to carat weight and diamond size. Of course, given that they have the same cut. For example, a round diamond weighing 1 carat has a diameter of 6.5 mm.
From which, by the way, we can conclude that such a diamond is considered a large stone.
2 diamonds of the same weight may differ in price. The fact is that the cost of a precious stone also depends on the clarity, cut and other factors.
Origin of the word
The origins of the word "carat" takes from the countries of the Middle East, famous for their love of jewelry, wealth and jewelry. In ancient times, in order to somehow compare stones with each other, jewelers were looking for a measure that was close to universal.
Of course, they found: she was given the seeds of the carob tree, famous for its constancy of shape and size. And their weight was close to the same 200 mg. And such a tree was called in Greek "keratonia".
It is easy to guess that this is where the similar-sounding word "carat" came from.
But you must admit, for such valuable things as precious stones, I wanted more accuracy. No one could give a 100% guarantee of the identity of the seeds. This was the reason for the introduction of the "metric carat".
The first version, to which the Europeans came in 1877, after conferring, said that a carat is equal to 205 mg. "What kind of number is this?" - a little later, other merchants and jewelers were indignant and offered a more convenient value.
So, since 1907, after passing IV General Conference according to measures and weights, from now on and forever 1 carat has become equal to one fiftieth of a gram. Gradually, the number of countries using the adopted measure increased. In the USSR, the carat was introduced in 1922.
What are the letters?
Carat has its own abbreviation - "ct". For example, 0.5 carats - 0.5 ct. It is used when talking about a single diamond. When considering the total mass of stones in a piece, the abbreviation "ct TW" is used.
Different carats are needed, different carats are important
I would like to note that the carat has a "brother" - a designation used to assess the purity of gold. But this is a separate issue.
At the beginning, we asked ourselves the question: “1 carat contains how many grams?” It turned out that the conversion of carats to grams is quite simple. Carat is a measure of weight for all gemstones and it weighs 0.2 grams. Accordingly, with different faceting appearance the same stone can be different.
It should be noted that a carat is a unit of weight, not size, as many people think, so a 1 carat diamond will be smaller in size than, for example, a 1 carat ruby or emerald. The name of this unit of weight comes from the Ceratonia siliqua tree, the seed of which was used in ancient times as a unit of measurement. Until the beginning of the 20th century, the carat weight in different countries was different, and could range from 0.1885 to 0.2135 grams. This situation more or less suited jewelers and stone dealers, since the carat weight was the same within the same country. Understanding the need to introduce a single international weight standard appeared only at the end of the 19th century. The first attempt to approve a single carat mass was made in 1871, when the Paris Chamber of Jewels made a proposal to consider the carat weight equal to 0.205 grams. This proposal was approved by the Paris Chamber of Diamond Merchants in 1877, but this standard was not further adopted.
Only in 1907, at the 4th General Assembly of Weights and Measures, it was decided to establish a single metric carat weight of 0.200 grams. Like previous attempts, the introduction of a new standard did not arouse much enthusiasm among jewelry dealers, since it did not bring them any benefit and at the same time required the cost of inventory and replacement of weights. It was only the official adoption of this standard in Belgium and the USA in 1913 and in Great Britain in 1914 that gave impetus to the adoption of the 0.200 gram carat throughout the world. In some states, there was no need to separately introduce the metric carat, since the metric system of measures in force in the country provided for its introduction by default. To date, the metric carat is a universally recognized international unit for measuring the weight of precious stones, including diamonds and polished diamonds.
Carat weight of a diamond
All diamonds are measured with an accuracy of 0.001 carats on a special carat scale, and recorded with an accuracy of 0.01 carats, the third digit is rounded according to the following rule, if it is from 0 to 8, then it is equal to 0, if it is equal to 9, then it is the value is rounded up to one.
Diamonds weighing less than 0.01 carats are considered rough diamonds, larger stones are divided into: small 0.01-0.29 carats; medium 0.3-0.99 carats, large 1-10.8 carats, special - from 10.8 carats and extra large over 25 carats. Stones assigned to the group of especially large ones usually receive proper names.
Diamonds are valued differently depending on their size. In large Special attention is given to their color, clarity and cut quality, which determine the brilliance of a diamond, and for those smaller than 1 carat, the main thing is weight.
Diamonds are valued according to the Tevernier rule, according to which the cost is equal to the price of 1 carat multiplied by the carat weight of the stone. As a result of applying this formula, the price increases progressively with its size, so a 10 carat stone will cost 100 times more than a 1 carat stone.
Also, you can roughly calculate the mass of a correctly cut round diamond by measuring its size, although such a formula gives a large error (up to 10%), but it is quite suitable for the initial assessment. You can estimate the value of a diamond on the page of our
The classic international intergovernmental organization of a universal type is the United Nations. More than 130 special organizations are associated with the UN by agreements, acting to resolve specific issues. These are various programmes, funds and specialized agencies with their own membership, leadership and budget. UN programs and funds are funded by voluntary, not assessed contributions. The specialized agencies are independent international organizations funded by both voluntary and assessed contributions.
Attempts to form a global international organization were made earlier, after the First World War, being realized at the base League of Nations the forerunners of the UN. However, it is the second World War raised the issue of jointly solving the problems of peace and security even more harshly, contributing for the first time in history to the creation of a truly universal international organization with the leading role of the victorious countries. The decision to create the UN was finally taken by the allies in the anti-Hitler coalition in 1945, when the outcome of World War II became clear. However, already in August 1941, US President F. D. Roosevelt and Prime Minister of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland W. Churchill signed atlantic charter, indicating directions international cooperation in order to maintain international peace and security. Subsequently, the general adherence to the idea of a global international organization was repeatedly confirmed in the joint declarations of the allied states. In January 1942, the phrase proposed by F. D. Roosevelt was first used "United Nations", Representatives of 26 allied states signed the Declaration of the United Nations in support of the Atlantic Charter. In October 1943 at the Moscow Conference, in December 1943 at the Tehran Conference, in September - October 1944 at the Washington Conference, and in February 1945 at the Yalta Conference, the United States, the United Kingdom, the USSR and other countries repeatedly confirmed readiness for the creation of the UN. The goals and structure of the Organization were developed. The UN Charter adopted at the San Francisco conference in April, on October 24, 1945, was ratified by the permanent members of the UN Security Council and other signatory states and entered into force. Since then, 24 October has been celebrated annually as United Nations Day.
In January 1946, the main operating bodies were created, the organizational structure UN. The General Assembly and the Security Council are convened for the first time, the first resolutions are adopted, the Secretary General is appointed, the Universal Declaration of Human Rights is adopted. The UN Charter states mission this international organization - why it is created, what goals and functions it implements in its activities: “The United Nations has four goals: to maintain international peace and security; develop friendly relations between nations; cooperate in solving international problems and in promoting respect for human rights; to be a center for coordinating the actions of nations.” The expression of the mission assumed the most general formulations, reflecting the direction and purpose of the international organization being created. The specification of the mission was carried out in the chapters of the Charter, devoted to the purposes and principles of the UN, which proclaimed the "sovereign equality" of "peace-loving states" - members of the UN and "the settlement of international disputes only by peaceful means." Of course, the declared goals were subsequently repeatedly violated by various UN member countries during the second half of the 20th and 21st centuries. repeatedly resorting to far from peaceful means of resolving disputes and bombing other countries without a UN mandate. However, from the very beginning of its activity, it was the UN that acted as the main supranational arbiter, setting the rules for international interaction and contributing to the settlement international conflicts.
According to the statute, The six main operating organs of the UN are: the General Assembly, the Security Council, the Economic and Social Council, the Trusteeship Council, the International Court of Justice and the Secretariat. The General Assembly operates on a sessional basis, consists of representatives of all Member States, and holds regular sessions once a year. There is also the possibility of convening General Secretary special sessions General Assembly at the request of the Security Council or a majority of UN members. At the sessions of the General Assembly, each member state of the UN has one vote and may be represented by no more than five delegates and five alternates. Currently, 193 states are members of the UN (on July 14, 2011, the Republic of South Sudan became the 193rd state that became a member of the UN).
Session work General Assembly is carried out within the framework of six committees, which may include delegates from various UN member countries. First Committee dealing with political, security and disarmament issues, Second Committee- economic and financial matters, Third Committee- social, humanitarian and cultural issues, Fourth Committee- questions international guardianship and territories Fifth Committee- administrative and budgetary matters, Sixth Committee - legal matters. In addition to committees, separate subsidiary commissions and conferences may be formed by the General Assembly, for example, the Commission on Human Rights under the Economic and Social Council, economic commissions, the Commission on international law, Commission on Disarmament Issues, United Nations Conference on Trade and Development. In the UN system, commissions and conferences serve as focal points that provide work in relevant areas and development problems. On the basis of studies of problems in key areas of international cooperation, the General Assembly presents substantiated recommendations to the UN member countries.
The established procedure involves the adoption of decisions on issues of maintaining peace and security Security Council, consisting of 15 members. In accordance with the Charter, it is the Security Council that has the primary responsibility for maintaining international peace and security (Article 24). All members of the UN agree to obey the decisions of the Security Council and carry them out (Article 25). While other UN bodies make recommendations to member states, only the Security Council (SC) has the power to make decisions that member states are then required to comply with by the Charter. At present, as before, since the founding of the UN, among permanent members UNSC includes China, Russian Federation, United Kingdom, United States and France. Each of the ten non-permanent members The UN Security Council is elected for a period of two years (five non-permanent members annually). Today they include Angola, Venezuela (Bolivarian Republic of), Egypt, Spain, Malaysia, New Zealand, Senegal, Ukraine, Uruguay and Japan. The election of non-permanent members of the UN Security Council is carried out on a geographical basis: five non-permanent members are elected from the states of Asia and Africa, two from the states of Latin America, two from the states of Western Europe and other states, and one from the states of Eastern Europe. The Security Council makes recommendations to the General Assembly regarding the appointment of a new Secretary-General and the admission of new members to the UN. General Assembly and Security Council elect judges International Court of Justice.
It is the Security Council that plays the leading role in determining whether there is a threat to the peace, a breach of the peace or an act of aggression, and makes recommendations or decides what measures should be taken (Article 39 of the UN Charter). He calls on the parties to settle the dispute peacefully and recommends methods or conditions for settlement (Article 33 of the UN Charter). In its practical activities, to maintain peace and security, the UN Security Council often resorts to sanctions, including authorizing military operations against violating states, the introduction of peacekeeping forces into conflict zones, the organization of post-conflict settlement, and the introduction of international administration in conflict zones. To this end, Member States shall place at the disposal of the UN Security Council “at its request and in accordance with a special agreement or agreements, the armed forces, assistance and appropriate facilities, including the right of passage, necessary for the maintenance of international peace and security” (Article 43 of the UN Charter).
In order to enable joint international enforcement action, the members of the United Nations maintain contingents of national air force. The number and degree of readiness of these contingents and plans for their joint action are determined by the Security Council with the help of the Military Staff Committee (Articles 45-46 of the UN Charter). In the event of a dispute between States, it is the Security Council that makes demands for a peaceful settlement of the dispute and recommends procedures and means for a peaceful settlement. In case of violation of the peace and acts of aggression, he decides to classify the acts as aggression, signs agreements with the UN member states on the provision of armed forces by them, uses the formed armed forces for separation, observation and security.
Keeping the peace and securing international security from the UN and other international organizations can be carried out in several directions. In this regard, it is worth mentioning first of all the concept of preventive (precautionary) diplomacy, whose participants seek to prevent the emergence of disputes between the parties, to prevent the escalation of existing disputes into conflicts or to limit the scope of conflicts after they arise. Initially, the idea of “preventive diplomacy” was expressed in 1960 during the period cold war at the 15th session of the General Assembly by UN Secretary General D. Hammarskjöld. It consisted in preventing local conflicts or preventing them from growing as a result of the intervention of superpowers on one side or another. Since then, the policy of “preventive diplomacy” has been repeatedly implemented in various countries. At the end of the Cold War, the concept of preventive diplomacy was again adopted after the speech of the UN Secretary-General B. Boutros-Ghali in 1992. In a report to the General Assembly, preventive diplomacy was defined as an activity in order to prevent the emergence of disputes between the parties, to prevent the escalation of existing disputes into conflicts and limiting the scope of conflicts once they have occurred.
The need to “expand the arsenal of preventive diplomacy” was mentioned in the report “Preventive Diplomacy: Achieving Results”, dedicated to the memory of former UN Secretary General D. Hammarskjöld, UN Secretary General Ban Ki-moon in 2011. Preventive diplomacy often turns out to be one of the few ways to preserve peace, and hence saving lives and preventing severe economic consequences. After all, on average, the cost of a civil war absorbs more than 30 years of growth in the gross domestic product (GDP) of a developing country. The cumulative costs associated with the most brutal and prolonged civil wars amount to tens of billions of US dollars, and the process of recovery to the initial level of growth takes an average of 14 years. Efforts to prevent crises can be much less costly. The UN Secretary-General noted that despite serious problems which continue to hinder success in the field of preventive diplomacy, collective efforts have nevertheless led to the fact that the number of low-intensity conflicts that began in the period 2000-2009 was about half that of those that began in the 1990s . the last century. During the same period, the number of new high-intensity conflicts (initially such or escalated into such) also decreased from 21 to 16*.
The idea of preventive diplomacy is being implemented by several ways. First of all, in order to maintain peace and bring the warring parties to an agreement by peaceful means, peacekeeping operations. They can be implemented through preventive placement in problem regions observer missions- United Nations military, police and civilian personnel. Built to respond to crisis situations and political missions in problem regions, which differ significantly in their goals and scope of activities, carry out various work to prevent potential conflicts. Their employees participate in the provision of good offices, interact with the governments of the countries involved, and help to implement peace initiatives of the parties to a potential conflict. An important area of prevention is "preventive disarmament"- Collection and destruction of weapons in the hands of potential participants in the various parties to the conflict. Of course, preventing conflict and avoiding violence is some ideal option. If preventive measures is not enough or they are taken too late, ending clashes and reconciliation require negotiation process, diplomatic efforts and mediation. At all stages of the conflict, political actions and solutions to resolve the contradictions underlying the conflict are important.
The use of multinational forces under the command of the UN contributes to the settlement of conflicts between the parties - peacekeeping. Lacking a permanent international
armed contingent of a military or police nature, in its activities the UN uses peacekeeping forces voluntarily provided by member states. Peacekeeping operations create buffer zones between warring parties and play the role of a neutral third party to establish and maintain a ceasefire. They can also assist in the conduct of elections and in the removal of deadly landmines. Peacekeeping operations have been carried out by UN forces since 1948. Since the First Arab-Israeli War, a UN mission has been operating in the Middle East to monitor the implementation of the terms of the truce. From 1949 to the present, the United Nations military observer group in India and Pakistan has played an important role in bringing peace to Jammu and Kashmir.
There are two types peacekeeping operations: observer missions and operations involving peacekeeping forces. The observers are unarmed, while the UN peacekeepers are equipped with light weapons, which they can use only in self-defense. UN peacekeepers are easily recognizable by the UN emblem and blue berets they wear while on duty. The blue helmets, which have become the symbol of UN peacekeepers, are worn during any operations where there is danger. Peacekeepers wear national uniforms. Troop-contributing governments retain full control over their military contingents flying the UN flag.
Active peacekeeping contributes to the cessation of military conflicts general secretaries UN, which, according to Art. 99 of the UN Charter, are empowered to "bring to the attention of the Security Council any matter which may threaten the maintenance of international peace and security." At the request of the Security Council, the Secretary General may appoint representatives, mediators, coordinators to assist the Council in resolving situations that pose a threat to international peace and security. Cases are known when the Security Council turned to the Secretary-General with a request to use the good offices mechanism and take a direct part in resolving this or that issue. Prominent examples of the assistance of the secretaries general and their special envoys in finding solutions to problems are the cessation of the war between Iran and Iraq and the achievement of an agreement on the withdrawal Soviet troops from Afghanistan in 1988. Recent examples of UN Secretary General Ban Ki-moon's long personal involvement in the mission of good offices and negotiation process in Cyprus (and other secretaries general before him since 1964) are numerous meetings with leaders of the Greek Cypriot and Cypriot communities -Turks on the basis of the relevant resolutions of the Security Council.
In regions of international conflicts missions of special (personal) representatives, envoys and advisers of the UN Secretary General. Thus, in resolution 1244 of June 10, 1999, the UN Security Council authorized the Secretary General to establish an international civilian presence in Kosovo - the Special Representative of the UN Secretary General and the United Nations Interim Administration Mission in Kosovo (UNMIK). Since the entry into force of the new constitution on 15 June 2008, the Mission's objectives have been significantly adjusted in the direction of promoting security, stability and respect for human rights. Pursuant to resolution 1528 of 27 February 2004, the Security Council decided to establish the United Nations Operation in Côte d'Ivoire (UNOCI). After presidential elections 2010 in Côte d'Ivoire and the political crisis that followed, UNOCI, led by the Special Representative of the Secretary-General in Côte d'Ivoire, continued to be carried out in the country with the aim of protecting civilians, facilitating the provision of humanitarian aid support to the Ivorian Government in the implementation of the program for the disarmament, demobilization and reintegration of combatants, and assistance in the field of human rights. Resolution 1401 of 28 March 2002 established the United Nations Assistance Mission in Afghanistan (UNAMA), headed by the Special Representative and Head of Mission of the Secretary-General for Afghanistan. Unfortunately, not all UN missions were successful. Thus, in 1993, the UN mission in Somalia did not achieve its goals. In 1994, the UN mission proved insufficient to prevent the genocide in Rwanda. In 1999, the actions of the UN mission also failed to prevent civil war in the Balkans.
After the stabilization of the situation or the end of the conflict, including through peacekeeping, it becomes possible to implement peacebuilding as a sequence of actions aimed at preventing the recurrence of clashes between the opposing sides and a gradual transition to peace. The UN structure has Peacebuilding Commission and the Peacebuilding Support Office (PSO). The Office is composed of the Peacebuilding Commission Support Section, the Policy Planning Section and the Peacebuilding Support Financing Section. The Office also helps to maintain peace in conflict-affected countries by mobilizing international support for peacebuilding efforts by national actors who are responsible for them. This assistance includes providing support to the Peacebuilding Commission in its work and mobilizing the efforts of the United Nations system on behalf of the Secretary-General, as well as (in partnership with external stakeholders) developing peacebuilding strategies, mobilizing resources and strengthening international coordination. A sound basis for this support is the function of the Office as a clearing house for lessons learned and best practices in peacebuilding. Peacebuilding is carried out in the form of support for authorities and structures civil society who are interested in strengthening peace in the region, in controlling the destruction of weapons and assisting in the adaptation of participants in hostilities to civilian life. Peacebuilding missions were deployed by the UN in 7 countries and subregions in Asia and 11 countries and subregions in Africa. UN political missions continue to operate in Afghanistan and the Middle East, Iraq, Lebanon and Central Asia, Burundi, Guinea-Bissau, West Africa, Libya, Somalia, Sierra Leone and the Central African Republic (United Nations Assistance Mission for Somalia was established in 2013).
Over the years of its existence, the activities of the United Nations in the maintenance of peace and security have repeatedly undergone changes. During the Cold War, each side sought to actively use the UN and the right of veto in the Security Council to realize their interests. In 1963, there is an increase in the number of members of the Security Council from 11 to 15, caused by the need to involve developing countries liberated from colonial dependence, as well as a general increase in the number of UN member states. At the same time, the current regional quotas for the election of non-permanent members of the Security Council for the states of Asia, Africa, Latin America, Eastern Europe and Western Europe were introduced.
After the end of the Cold War, the powers of the UN are further strengthened due to the expansion of the range of controlled issues in the direction of sanctions, economic and administrative decisions. The destruction of the bipolar structure of world politics and economics could not but affect the activities of the UN as universal organization governing international relations throughout the world. A consequence of the destruction of the Yalta-Potsdam system of international relations for the UN was the desire of a number of countries to increase their own representation in the UN and its governing bodies. It was especially manifested in calls for UN reform and criticism of the institution of permanent membership in the Security Council by various countries with the aim of their own entry into the ranks of permanent members. There are also problems of lobbying and better financing of peacekeeping operations that are more “favorable” from the point of view of the political interests of a number of countries led by the United States.
In 1979, the problem of the representation of states in the Security Council and the possibility of its expansion was submitted for consideration by the 34th session of the UN General Assembly. In 1993, during the 48th session, the General Assembly adopted a resolution “On the establishment of an open-ended Working Group to consider all aspects of the issue of expanding the membership of the Security Council and other matters relating to the Security Council”. This resolution spoke about increasing the efficiency and geographical representation of the regions in the Security Council, but it was not determined by what methods and in what forms the reform should be carried out.
Expansion Idea numerical strength The Security Council is widely debated at various levels and in various countries. Even before the end of the Cold War, there were calls from the United States for the inclusion of Germany and Japan on the Security Council. Today, the United States is a “soft opponent” of granting the FRG a seat as a permanent member of the UN Security Council because of concerns about its own exclusive influence. Modern project The US proposes to increase the composition of the UN Security Council by two permanent and two or three non-permanent members. In the American political elite, voices are often heard about the “completion of the historical mission” and the “uselessness” of the UN, about the need to create a new universal international organization “on a democratic basis”, that is, without being included not only in the governing body for security, but also in the number of member states of Russia and China. Such ideas reflect the desire to strengthen their own power, permissiveness and non-control of any form of supervision by the international community and any kind of international mandates.
The greatest progress towards reforming the UN was achieved by 2005, when Secretary General Kofi Annan delivered the report “In Larger Freedom” containing proposals for reforming the UN. The report presented two options for transforming the Security Council: having six new permanent members plus four new non-permanent members with no veto power, or a new way of electing the composition of the Security Council without expanding the number of permanent members. In the same year, Germany, Japan, Brazil, India came up with ideas for a new procedure for the formation of the Security Council, proposing to increase the number of permanent members to 11, and non-permanent members to 14. At the same time, the African states of Ghana, Nigeria, Senegal and South Africa, focusing on that the countries of the continent are not represented among the permanent members of the Security Council, as in the early stages of the existence of the UN and in this international organization itself, they proposed expanding the composition of the permanent and non-permanent members of the Security Council to 26. According to their common opinion, this could be done, among other things through the presence of two African countries among the permanent and two among the non-permanent members. On the contrary, Italy, China, South Korea, Canada, Mexico, Argentina, Pakistan and other regional powers opposed the creation of new permanent seats in the UN Security Council (including against the entry of Germany), but proposed to expand the composition of the Security Council to 25 members by increasing the number of non-permanent members by ten countries.
Supporting the idea of reforming the UN with the aim of greater involvement in its governing structures, primarily the Security Council, representatives of various developed and developing countries, the Russian Federation has repeatedly called for a “broad agreement” on this issue. According to the Minister of Foreign Affairs of the Russian Federation S.V. Lavrov, “for the reform of the UN Security Council, a compromise is needed between two so far irreconcilable approaches to the categories of enlargement... One group of countries absolutely insists that new permanent seats be created, and the second that it is categorically impossible to allow the creation of new permanent seats and that a solution must be sought through an increase in the number of non-permanent members.” complex structure and the mutually exclusive interests of the UN member states as the largest international organization necessitate a long search for consensus and compromise. Despite the problems and disagreements, UN peacekeeping for most member states is still not only the highest value, but also an alternative to the arbitrariness of one country or group of countries in international relations. A prudent reform of the United Nations could contribute to a more rapid and effective response to international crises and conflicts.
The principles of chain connection, ingression, selection, mobile balance, weak link.
The principle of a chain connection - any connection of complexes occurs through common links that form a chain connection.
Otherwise, for the formation of a single whole from several components, it is necessary that these components have something in common, i.e. matching items. For example, what can bring people together? Someone is united by common interests or general tasks. Someone is united by a common grief, etc. Workshops at an industrial enterprise are united by a common production process. The seller and the buyer are united by a commodity that one needs to sell and the other to buy.
The principle of ingression (occurrence) - the formation of a chain connection is carried out by the occurrence of organizing complexes between organized ones.
The principle of ingression is a logical continuation of the chain connection principle, since it states that the formation of a connection between components occurs because the active organizing components have common elements with the organized ones and "enter" between them.
The principle of ingression is manifested both in nature and in human activity. For example, the formation of a chemical bond between elements occurs through the movement of electrons along an orbital that unites chemical elements. In this case, the nuclei of chemical elements are organized complexes, and the electrons of the outer layer are organizing ones.
Similarly, in production, the integration of individual workplaces into a production line is carried out by means of a conveyor. At the same time, workplaces are organized complexes, and the conveyor is organizing.
Following the principles of chain communication and ingression, in order to establish contact with another person, it is necessary to talk with him about what interests him. This must be taken into account when establishing interpersonal contacts, in particular when organizing and conducting negotiations.
The principle of selection - any event or statement can be considered as the preservation or multiplication of some activities and connections in a particular complex or system as a whole, and the elimination, weakening of others.
In nature, the most striking manifestation of this principle is natural selection arising from the struggle for existence. There are many examples of various manifestations of the principle of selection in human activity. Man carries out artificial selection, carrying out the selection of animals and plants.
In the process of strategic planning, the most favorable long-term development program for the organization is selected. In the course of competition, there is a strengthening of the position in the market of some participants and a weakening of others.
Any crisis has not only negative, but also positive consequences for the country's economy. Any trouble in a person's life should serve as a lesson to him in the future. As Cardinal de Retz said: "We should consider our plans in such a way that even failure brings us certain benefits."
The principle of mobile balance - any preservation of forms should be considered as a mobile balance of these forms, and mobile equilibrium is the relative equality of the processes of assimilation and deassimilation.
This principle can be explained as follows: any organization, both biological and social, functions sustainably through the processes of assimilation and deassimilation.
Assimilation - this is the assimilation by the system of elements from the external environment, which at the same time form groupings with its other elements, i.e. are used by the system.
Deassimilation is the loss of elements of the system during external environment. Further, these elements enter into combinations with elements of the external environment.
The processes of assimilation and deassimilation occur in biological systems in the course of metabolism, and in social systems - as the movement of personnel, materials, energy. In addition, the balance between individual forms of organizations is achieved through the destruction of some and the emergence of others, similar. Thus, a certain proportionality is ensured between large, medium and small organizations in a region or country, between people of different ages, levels of education, gender, etc.
The weak link principle - the integrity of any system is determined by the stability of its weakest link.
This principle follows directly from the law of least. Guided by this principle, it is possible to solve important problems military tactics, economic and political activity. For example, during the analysis economic activity identify production reserves and develop directions for their use. These can be measures to improve the efficiency of resources:
- - equipment - the introduction of a multi-shift mode of its operation, the modernization of obsolete equipment;
- - materials - tightening compliance with the norms for the consumption of materials and their revision;
- - personnel - increasing production standards, eliminating absenteeism and being late for work, improving the wage system, etc.
Similarly, the strategic planning process identifies weak sides competitors and take them into account when developing their strategy.
