Russian artillery caliber. Classification of naval artillery Calibers of artillery

Caliber of rifled small arms

The most popular pistol calibers are:

577 (14.7 mm) - the largest of the series, the revolver "Eley" (Great Britain);

45 (11.4 mm) - the "national" US caliber, the most common in the Wild West. In 1911, the Colt M1911 automatic pistol of this caliber entered service with the army and navy and, repeatedly upgraded, served until 1985, when the US military switched to 9mm for the Beretta_92.

38; .357 (9mm) - currently considered optimal for hand weapons(less - the bullet is too "weak", more - the gun is too heavy).

25 (6.35 mm) - TOZ-8.

2.7 mm - the smallest of the serial ones, had a Hummingbird pistol of the Pieper system (Belgium).

Caliber of a smoothbore hunting weapon

For smoothbore hunting rifles, calibers are measured differently: caliber number means number of bullets, which can be cast from 1 English pound of lead (453.6 g). In this case, the bullets must be spherical, identical in mass and diameter, which is equal to the inner diameter of the barrel in its middle part. The smaller the barrel diameter, the greater the number of bullets. In this way twentieth gauge is less than sixteenth, a sixteenth less than twelfth.

In the designation of cartridges for smoothbore weapons, as in the designation of cartridges for rifled weapons, it is customary to indicate the length of the sleeve, for example: 12/70 - a 12 gauge cartridge with a sleeve 70 mm long. Most common case lengths: 65, 70, 76 (magnum). Along with them there are: 60 and 89 (super magnum). The most widespread in Russia are hunting rifles of 12 gauge. There are (in descending order of prevalence) 16, 20, 36 (.410), 32, 28, and the distribution of caliber 36 (.410) is due solely to the release of Saiga carbines of the corresponding caliber.

The actual diameter of the bore of a given caliber in each country may differ from those indicated within certain limits. In addition, we should not forget that the shotgun barrel hunting weapon usually has different kind constrictions (chokes) through which not any bullet of its caliber can pass without damaging the barrel, so in many cases the bullets are made according to the diameter of the choke and are supplied with easily cut sealing belts, which are cut down when passing through the choke. It should be noted that the common caliber of signal pistols - 26.5 mm - is nothing more than the 4th hunting.

Caliber of Russian artillery, air bombs, torpedoes and rockets

In Europe the term artillery caliber appeared in 1546, when Hartmann from Nuremberg developed a device called the Hartmann scale. It was a prismatic tetrahedral ruler. Units of measurement (inches) were marked on one face, and the actual dimensions, depending on the weight in pounds, of iron, lead and stone cores, respectively, were applied to the other three.

Example(approximately):

1 face - mark lead 1 pound kernels - corresponds to 1.5 inches

2 edge - iron cores 1 f. - from 2.5

3 face - stone cores 1 f. - from 3

Thus, knowing either the size or weight of the projectile, it was easy to complete, and most importantly, manufacture ammunition. A similar system existed in the world for about 300 years.

In Russia, before Peter 1, there were no standards. At the beginning of the 18th century, on behalf of Peter the Great, Feldzeugmeister General Count Bruce developed a domestic caliber system based on the Hartmann scale. She divided the guns according to artillery weight projectile (cast iron core). The unit of measurement was the artillery pound, a cast-iron ball 2 inches in diameter and weighing 115 spools (about 490 grams). A scale was also created that correlated artillery weight with the diameter of the bore, that is, with what we now call the caliber. At the same time, it did not matter what types of shells the gun fired - buckshot, bombs, or anything else. Only the theoretical artillery weight was taken into account, which the gun could shoot with its size. This system was introduced by royal decree in the city and lasted for a century and a half.

Example:

3 pound gun, 3 pound gun- official name;

artillery weight 3 pounds- the main characteristic of the weapon.

2.8 inch scale- diameter of the bore, an auxiliary characteristic of the gun.

In practice, it was a small cannon, firing rounds weighing about 1.5 kg and having a caliber (in our understanding) of about 70 mm.

D. E. Kozlovsky in his book translates the Russian artillery weight into metric calibers:

3 pounds - 76 mm.

A special place in this system was occupied by explosive shells (bomb). Their weight was measured in poods (1 pood = 40 trade pounds = approx. 16.3 kg). This is due to the fact that the bombs were hollow, with explosives inside, that is, they were made of materials of different densities. In their production, it was much more convenient to operate with generally accepted weight units.

D. Kozlovsky leads the next. ratios:

1/4 pud - 120 mm

For bombs, a special weapon was intended - a bombard, or mortar. Her performance characteristics, combat missions and the calibration system allow us to talk about a special type of artillery. In practice, small bombards often fired ordinary cannonballs, and then the same weapon had different calibers - general at 12 pounds and special at 10 pounds.

The introduction of calibers, among other things, has become a good financial incentive for soldiers and officers. So, in the “Book of the Charter of the Sea”, printed in St. Petersburg in 1720, in the chapter “On Rewarding”, the amounts of award payments for cannons taken from the enemy are given:

30-pound - 300 rubles

In the second half of the 19th century, with the introduction of rifled artillery, the scale was adjusted due to changes in the characteristics of the projectile, but the principle remained the same.

Interesting fact: in our time artillery pieces, calibrated by weight, are still in service. This is due to the fact that in the UK a similar system was maintained until the end of the Second World War. Upon its completion a large number of guns were sold and transferred to countries like that. called Third world. In the WB itself, 25-pound (87.6 mm) guns were in service until the end of the 70s. last century, and now remain in salute units.

In 1877, the inch system was introduced. At the same time, the former dimensions according to the "Bruce" scale to new system had nothing to do with it. True, the “Bryusov” scale and artillery weight remained for some time after 1877 due to the fact that many obsolete guns remained in the army.

Example:

Notes

The caliber of air bombs is measured in kilograms.

see also

Wikimedia Foundation. 2010 .

), for shells (bullets) the caliber is determined by their largest diameter. Guns with a tapered barrel are characterized by input and output calibers.

Caliber of rifled small arms

The caliber is indicated both on the weapon and on the cartridges. However, with the same caliber numbers, the diameters of the bores of the barrels (and bullets) may vary. For example, the 9x18 Makarov and 9x19 Parabellum (or 9x17 Browning) cartridges have the same 9mm caliber. The distance between the fields of the Makarov pistol (the smallest diameter of the bore) is 9 mm, the distance between the rifling is 9.27 mm, the sleeve diameter is 9.25 mm. For weapons for the second ammunition, the distance between the fields is 8.8 mm, the distance between the rifling is 9 mm, the sleeve diameter is 9.03 mm.

The caliber of rifled small arms in countries using the English system of measures is measured in fractions of an inch: in the USA - in hundredths (0.01 inch), in the UK - in thousandths (0.001 inch). In the record, the zero of the integer part of the number and the designation of the unit of measurement (inch) are omitted, a dot is used as a decimal separator: .45 , .450 . In Russian texts, traditional English and american calibers are written in the same way (with a dot, not a comma, accepted in Russia as a decimal separator): cal.45, cal.450; in colloquial speech: forty-five caliber, four hundred and fifty caliber.

Small arms caliber classification:

As a rule, small arms differ from artillery weapons by the type of ammunition. Weapon designed to fire bullets, while artillery systems fire projectiles. At the same time, for a rifled firearms one of the differences between bullets and projectiles is that the bullets, when passing through the bore, cut into the rifling with their shell. This creates a torque that increases the stability of the bullet in flight. The projectile, when fired, is given rotation with the help of leading belts (made from materials of less hardness than the shell of the shell of the projectile). Leading bands of copper are commonly used; and, for example, a new generation of projectiles for Russian 30 mm aircraft and naval guns uses plastic leading devices.

The most common calibers for pistols, rifles and machine guns are:

• .577 (14.7 mm) - the largest of the series, the revolver "Eley" (Great Britain);
• .50 (12.7 mm) - used for heavy machine guns and sniper rifles, as well as for a well-known brand Desert pistol Eagle;
• .45 (11.43 mm) - the "national" caliber of the United States, the most common in the Wild West; in 1911 self-loading pistol Colt M1911 of this caliber entered service with the army and navy and, with minor changes in 1926, served until 1985, when armed forces The US switched to 9mm for the Beretta 92; continues to be used in civil circulation;
• .40 (10.2 mm) - a relatively new pistol caliber; provides better efficiency, for which he received great popularity in the US law enforcement agencies;
• .38; .357 (9 mm), currently considered the best for short-barreled weapons (less - the cartridge is "weak", more - the gun is too bulky and heavy, strong recoil);
• .30 (7.62 mm) - caliber of ammunition for the Nagant revolver, TT pistol, Mosin rifle, Simonov self-loading carbine, Kalashnikov assault rifle, Kalashnikov light machine gun, Dragunov sniper rifle, PK / PKM / PKT machine guns;
• .22 LR (5.6 mm) - TOZ-8 rifle ammunition caliber (TOZ-10, TOZ-12);
• .223 (5.56 mm) - ammunition caliber automatic rifle M16;
• 5.45 mm - AK-74 ammunition caliber;
• 2.7 mm - the smallest serial caliber; was used in the Hummingbird pistol of the Franz Pfannl system (Austria) [ ] .

Caliber of a smoothbore or other hunting weapon

The caliber is determined by the inner diameter of the barrel. 18 gauge barrel

For smoothbore hunting rifles, calibers are measured differently: the caliber number means the whole number of spherical bullets that can be cast from 1 English pound of lead (453.592 g). In this case, the bullets must be spherical, identical in mass and diameter, which is equal to the inner diameter of the barrel in its middle part. The smaller the barrel diameter, the more bullets are produced from a pound of lead. Thus, the twentieth gauge is less than the tenth, and the sixteenth is less than the twelfth.

You can also use the formula for determining the caliber (K) by the diameter of the barrel (D, cm):

K = 453 , 592 ⋅ 6 π ⋅ D 3 ⋅ 11 , 3415 ≈ 76 , 3829 D 3 (\displaystyle K=(\frac (453,592\cdot 6)(\pi \cdot ((D)^(3))\ cdot 11.3415))\approx (\frac (76.3829)((D)^(3))))

In the designation of the caliber of cartridges for smoothbore weapons, as in the designation of cartridges for rifled weapons, it is customary to indicate the length of the sleeve, for example: 12/70 - cartridge 12 caliber with a sleeve 70 mm long. Most common case lengths: 65, 70, 76mm (Magnum); along with them there are 60 and 89 mm (Super Magnum).

The most widespread in Russia are hunting rifles of 12 gauge. There are (in descending order of prevalence) 20, 16, 24, 28, 32 (the so-called 36), .410, and the distribution of .410 is due solely to the release of Saiga carbines of the appropriate caliber.

The actual diameter of the bore of a given caliber depends, firstly, on the specific manufacturer and, secondly, on drilling for a certain type of sleeve: metal, plastic or folder. For example, a 12-gauge barrel drilled for a folder or plastic sleeve has a bore diameter of 18.3 mm, while a barrel drilled for a metal one has a bore diameter of 19.4 mm. In addition, it should not be forgotten that the barrel of a shotgun hunting weapon usually has various types of chokes, through which not any bullet of its caliber can pass without damage to the barrel, so in many cases the body of the bullet is made according to the diameter of the choke and is equipped with centering belts that are easily crushed when passing through the choke. It should be noted that the common caliber of signal pistols - 26.5 mm - is nothing more than the 4th hunting caliber.

Caliber is the diameter of the bore, expressed in different measures (see table)

*All errors in determining the value of the caliber are explained by the different weight of a pound of lead in different number systems, as well as the rules for rounding and the desire to get a beautiful number in a row.

Thus, breech-loading weapons of many calibers were supplanted as having very similar combat performance. Already in the 19th century, cases and barrels were made, the calibers of which were multiples of 4 on an even scale from 12 to 36, and larger calibers were multiples of 2, including 10, 8, 6, and even 4 gauge.

Cartridges for hunting and sporting weapons with drill type Lancaster and Paradox

The length of the chambers of hunting smoothbore guns in millimeters

Russian artillery caliber

In Europe the term artillery caliber appeared in 1546 when Georg Hartmann from Nuremberg developed a device called the Hartmann scale. It was a prismatic tetrahedral ruler. Units of measurement (inches) were marked on one side, and the actual dimensions (depending on weight in pounds) of iron, lead and stone cores, respectively, were applied to the other three.

Examples (approximately):

• 1 face - the mark of the lead core weighing 1 pound - corresponds to 1.5 inches;
• 2 face - the mark of an iron core weighing 1 pound - corresponds to 2.5 inches;
• 3 face - the mark of a stone core weighing 1 pound - corresponds to 3 inches.

Thus, knowing the size or weight of the projectile, it was easy to complete, and most importantly, manufacture ammunition. A similar system existed in the world for about three hundred years.

In Russia, before Peter I, there were no uniform standards. The guns and squeaks available in the army were each individually characterized by the weight of the projectile, in Russian national units. The pre-Petrine inventories mention tools from 1/8

Naval artillery is a set of artillery weapons mounted on warships and intended for use against coastal (ground), sea (surface) and air targets. Naval artillery can be classified according to a number of criteria.

Classification of naval artillery

Classification by purpose

Universal ship artillery installation A190

Most often in the literature, it is the classification of naval artillery according to its intended purpose. After all, even with the same caliber on different ships, guns can perform a completely different role. For example, on Soviet destroyers, 130 mm guns were used as main battery guns.

At the same time, on battleships, such guns cannot be main guns and most often serve as anti-mine (PMK), auxiliary caliber, or even anti-aircraft artillery. Because of this, all weapons are divided into:

• Main caliber- main firepower most ships, is used to fire at surface and land targets. With the advent missile weapons artillery of the main caliber has lost its relevance.

• Universal Artillery- has the widest range of applications, it is used for sea, coastal and air targets. With the spread of missile weapons, it was the universal that became the main naval artillery. In connection with such changes in the armament of ships, the main targets of universal artillery are air targets, and secondary targets are sea and coastal targets.

• Flak- naval artillery, used exclusively for air targets. Previously, depending on the caliber, it was divided into 3 groups: large-caliber (100 mm or more), medium-caliber (57 - 88 mm) and small-caliber (less than 57 mm). But in modern conditions guns with a caliber of more than 152 mm are not produced, medium-caliber air defense guns are used as universal artillery. In this way, flak on modern ships it consists of 20-30 mm rapid-fire machine guns. In some states, guns with a caliber of up to 40 mm are used.

• rocket artillery- installation of unguided rocket weapons.

105 mm anti-aircraft gun SKC/33

Classification by caliber

The classification of artillery by caliber also changed depending on the time. It is worth noting that until 1922, ship guns with a caliber from 193 to 238 mm belonged to an intermediate caliber.

Classification of naval artillery in the period from 1860 to 1946:

• large caliber- 240 mm and more.
• medium caliber- from 100 to 190 mm
• small caliber- less than 100 mm.

Classification of naval artillery after 1946:

• large caliber- 180 mm and more.
• medium caliber- from 100 to 179 mm
• small caliber- less than 100 mm.

Classification by type of accommodation

Naval artillery has many placement options. Basically, they depend on the goals and scope of artillery. According to the type of artillery installations are divided into:

• Tower units- the guns are placed in armored towers, which provides protection for the personnel of the guns and mechanisms from enemy shells, chemical weapons and air bombs. Each tower consists of a fighting compartment (the protected upper part of the tower) and a turret compartment (a hidden part of the tower installation, which includes elevators and artillery magazines). Tower installations are divided into single-gun and multi-gun (two-, three-, four-gun). Each of the concepts has its own advantages and disadvantages.

• Deck type units- unlike turret-type installations, they do not have a turret compartment, and the gun and service systems are separate. Unlike turrets, such installations have completely isolated cellars and ammunition supply routes.

• Deck-tower units- have part of the armor protection, which provides better security compared to deck installations. Also, the gun, guidance and loading mechanisms are one piece, and all other systems are placed separately. The turret compartment consists of a lifting mechanism (elevator). The armor protection of such installations is most often an open bulletproof and anti-fragmentation armor, which is a rotating part of the installation.

Classification by shooting method

• Automatic settings- such artillery mounts loading, pointing, shooting and reloading are performed automatically without human intervention.

• Semi-automatic installations- some operations in the process of shooting are performed by people, and the rest are automated. Most often, the artillery crew performs the loading of guns, aiming and reloading.

• Non-automatic settings- all actions are performed directly by artillery crew manually or using certain mechanisms (most often feed and loading mechanisms) driven by a person.

Classification by loading method

• With unitary loading- a unitary cartridge is a projectile combined into a whole, a propellant charge and a means of ignition. Loading is done in one step, which allows you to achieve a higher rate of fire compared to separate-sleeve or cap loading.

Cartridge shot

• With separate case loading- with this method of loading, the projectile consists of several non-integrated parts - the projectile, propellant charge and ignition means. Thanks to the ability to change the weight of the warhead, you can adjust it for certain tasks and conditions. This method of loading does not ensure the tightness of the warhead, which can adversely affect its qualities and lower the speed of the guns compared to unitary loading. Also, capped loading belongs to separate-sleeve loading. Unlike separate case loading, this method does not use shells, which makes their production easier and cheaper. But loading is carried out in three stages, which significantly reduces the rate of fire compared to unitary and separate-sleeve loading. Also, the presence of a separate means of ignition and the absence of a sleeve significantly complicates the design of the shutter and loading methods. For this reason, shots of this type are used exclusively in large-caliber guns.

For all the years of the war, he never managed to get close to the American battleships at the distance of his monstrous artillery, and he died without seeing the enemy under the blows of carrier-based aircraft of invisible aircraft carriers. In her last battle, the Yamato shot down five and damaged twenty American planes, a paltry price for the most expensive ship in the world. This was the last point in the history of sea giants - dreadnoughts were not built anywhere else in the world.

Superdreadnoughts

And this last chapter in the history of superships began on October 23, 1911, when the British Prime Minister McKenna appointed 36-year-old Sir Winston Churchill as Secretary of the Navy. A few weeks later, Churchill made a policy statement in Glasgow: “The English fleet is a necessity for us, and if we approach the German fleet from a certain point of view, then for the Germans it is basically a luxury.

The very existence of England is directly connected with our naval power. It is the guarantee of our existence. For the Germans, naval power is expansion." Churchill, concerned about the qualitative superiority of the German naval artillery, proposed increasing the caliber of the battleship guns to 381 mm. “I immediately decided to go an order of magnitude higher,” Churchill recalled in his memoirs, “and during the regatta I hinted at this to Lord Fisher. Not less than 15 inches for battleships and battlecruisers of the new program.

And on October 21, 1912, the world's first superdreadnought Queen Elizabeth was laid down with a displacement of 33,000 tons and a speed of 24 knots. Armament consisted of eight 381 mm MK.1 guns in four turrets. To imagine the full power of the new artillery, we note that the mass of the 15-inch (381-mm) projectile was 885 kg - 2.3 times more than that of the 12-inch! An experimental 15-inch gun with a barrel length of 42 calibers was manufactured by the military plant in Elsvik in just 4 months. The test results exceeded all expectations. Shooting accuracy even at maximum range(at the training ground - 32 km; for ship installations, due to the lower elevation angle of the trunks, the range did not exceed 21.4 km) was simply excellent.

The German battleship Bismarck, equipped with eight 381 mm guns, was defeated in a battle with British warships in May 1941. Two torpedoes crashed into the battleship, damaging the propellers, smashing the steering gear and jamming the rudders. On May 27, the Bismarck sank in the waters of the North Atlantic.

Like the Dreadnought, the Queen Elizabeth could hit any battleship in the world and safely escape if necessary. Five ships of the Queen Elizabeth type entered service during the war, in January 1915 - February 1916. A year later, five more Rivage-class battleships with similar armament entered service. The Germans, with some delay, responded by building four of their own superdreadnoughts, the lead of which, Baden, with a displacement of 28,500 tons and a speed of 22 knots, was laid down in 1913. The main battery artillery was represented by eight 380-mm cannons with a firing range of 37.3 km.

Restriction of naval armaments

In the early 1920s, "winners" England and the United States decided to limit the race naval armaments. On February 6, 1922, the delegates of the USA, England, Japan, France and Italy signed a treatise "on the limitation of naval armaments", according to which the following ratios of the size of the linear fleet were established: USA: England: Japan: France: Italy - 5: 5: 3 : 1.75: 1.75. As a result, England received the right to have twenty battleships with a total displacement of 558,950 tons, the USA - eighteen battleships (525,850 tons), Japan - ten battleships (301,320 tons), France - ten battleships (221,170 tons), Italy - ten battleships (182 800 tons). The powers that signed the agreement pledged not to buy or build battleships with a displacement of more than 35,000 tons and not to equip them with guns with a caliber of more than 16 inches (406 mm). The total tonnage of battleships that could be replaced should not have exceeded: for the USA and England - 525,000 tons, for Japan - 315,000 tons, for France and Italy - 175,000 tons each. Thus, England was forced retreat from its principle of having a fleet equal to the combined fleet of the two strongest maritime powers.

Meanwhile, the British had another naval idea: lightly armored, but fast ships the size of a dreadnought. They called them quite funny - " big lungs cruisers". Three of these ships, Koreydzhis, Glorius and Furies, with a displacement of 23,000 tons and a speed of 31-32 knots, were laid down in March-June 1915. The first two ships were armed with four 381 mm guns in two turrets, while the Furies were armed with two 457 mm and four 140 mm guns. Monstrous 457-mm cannons with a barrel weight of 150 tons fired one and a half ton projectiles at a range of 27.4 km. However, the "large light cruisers" were too vulnerable to enemy fire, and at the end of the First World War they were converted into aircraft carriers.

For the filming of the Japanese film Yamato for Men, a life-size model of a battleship was created (length 263 m, width 40 m).

Three guns

Of the other states, the United States was the first to raise the caliber of the guns of its dreadnoughts - from 305 mm to 356 mm. New York and Texas were laid down in 1911 and commissioned in the spring of 1914. Their displacement was 28,400 tons, speed - 21 knots, and armament - ten 356-mm and twenty-one 127-mm guns. It is curious that the Americans for the first time used three-gun turrets of the main caliber. Then the United States built two more ships with the same weapons. But the Pennsylvania dreadnought, laid down on October 27, 1913, with a displacement of 32,600 tons, already had twelve 356-mm guns. In total, seven battleships with twelve 356-mm guns were commissioned in the United States.

On April 24, 1917, the new Maryland superdreadnought was laid down with eight 406-mm guns in four turrets. A series of four such ships entered service in 1917-1923, a little later they were joined by six huge Lexington-class battlecruisers with similar weapons. In parallel, in 1920, six super-dreadnoughts of the South Dakota type were laid down, carrying twelve 406-mm guns. In Japan, the first 356-mm guns appeared on four Kongo-class battleships in 1913-1915. And in 1917, the battleship Nagato entered service with eight 410-mm guns.

government ships

On June 30, 1909, four dreadnoughts were laid down at state-owned factories in St. Petersburg: "Petropavlovsk" and "Sevastopol" - on the Baltic, and "Gangut" and "Poltava" - on the Admiralteysky, with twelve 305-mm guns of the main caliber. A lot has been written about these ships in our literature, and I will confine myself to a very brief remark that the artillery on them was unsuccessfully located, and the armor also left much to be desired. At the time of laying firepower Russian ships was not inferior to the British dreadnoughts, but by the beginning of 1915, by the time they were commissioned, they were significantly inferior to battleships with 343-mm and 381-mm guns. Therefore, the Naval Ministry decided to increase the caliber of the guns, and on December 19, 1913, four Borodino-class battlecruisers with a total displacement of 36,646 tons, armed with twelve 356-mm guns each, were laid down at state-owned shipyards in St. Petersburg.

Winston Churchill congratulates the crew of the cruiser Exeter on their homecoming, standing on a chair under 6-inch guns.

At the same time, the design of new battleships was going on. At the beginning of 1914, Deputy Chief of the Naval General Staff for Shipbuilding, Captain 1st Rank Nenyukov provided the Minister of the Sea Grigorovich with the “Basic tasks for battleships Baltic Sea". According to the General Staff, the guns of battleships at a distance of 100 cables (18,520 m) were supposed to penetrate armor equal in thickness to the caliber of the gun. After reviewing the characteristics of modern 14-, 15-, and 16-inch guns, the staff of the General Staff came to the conclusion that "subject to almost the same ballistic data, the advantage remains with 16-inch guns."

At the beginning of 1914, a 406/45-mm gun was designed in the Artillery Department of the Main Directorate of Shipbuilding, which was similar in design to 305-mm and 356-mm guns. In April 1914, the Obukhov plant received an order for the production of an experimental 406-mm gun by the end of 1915. In parallel, Vickers ordered a 406/45 mm cannon of a slightly different design for £27,000, in particular, with two inner tubes. The ballistic data for the project were as follows: projectile weight 1128 kg, charge weight 332 kg, muzzle velocity 758 m/s.

The 460-mm guns of the Yamato super battleship were used in combat conditions only once: on October 25, 1944, off the island of Samar (Philippines).

The first test of an experimental 406-mm gun manufactured by Vickers was carried out on August 22, 1917 at the company's training ground near the city of Exmills. In January 1914, the Naval Ministry issued a tactical and technical assignment for the design of a battleship for the Baltic Sea. It was supposed to have twelve 406-mm guns in three- or four-gun turrets, as well as twenty-four 130-mm guns. The speed of the battleship was to be 25 knots, cruising range - 5000 miles. The thickness of the main armor belt along the waterline is 280 mm.

If such a battleship could be built, then in terms of artillery weapons it would surpass any battleship in the world built before 1946, except for the Japanese Yamato-class battleships with 460-mm artillery. However, in 1917 a revolution broke out in Russia, and the projects of Russian superdreadnoughts remained on paper.

Expensive toys

Ironically, the ultra-expensive super battleships practically failed to make war. The only classic battleship battle of the First World War - the Battle of Jutland, in which four Queen Elizabeth-class super battleships - Barham, Warspite, Valient and Malaya - took part, ended not in favor of the British (fourteen ships with a total tonnage 111,000 tons and 6,784 sailors and officers killed against eleven German ships (62,000 tons) and 3,058 personnel), despite the fact that the German battleships were inferior to the British in caliber (the largest German caliber in that battle was 305 mm versus 381 mm by the English).

In World War II, the role of super battleships was completely comical - only two Japanese took part in the hostilities - Yamato and Musashi. The 460-mm Yamato guns were used in combat conditions only once: on October 25, 1944, near the island of Samar (Philippines). Several shells pierced through the American escort aircraft carriers, but did not explode, since the fuses were designed for the armor of the battleships. Most of the time, countries that own super battleships hid their super-expensive toys in protected raids, but still most of them were sunk by enemy aircraft. Until now, only two super battleships have remained in service - the American Iowa and Wisconsin (nine 406-mm guns each), which are used more as a psychological than as a real weapon.

The caliber of artillery, as a term, appeared in Europe in 1546, when Hartmann from Nuremberg introduced a prismatic tetrahedral ruler. This device is called the Hartmann scale. Units of measurement (inches) were marked on one side, and the actual dimensions (depending on weight in pounds) of iron, lead and stone cores, respectively, were applied to the other three.

Examples (approximately):

• 1 face - the mark of the lead core weighing 1 pound - corresponds to 1.5 inches;
• 2 face - iron core weighing 1 pound - with 2.5;
• 3 face - stone core weighing 1 pound - with 3.

Knowing the size or weight of the projectile, it was possible to manufacture ammunition to complete the charge in advance. This system has existed in the world for about three centuries. In Russia, uniform standards did not exist before the reforms of Peter I. Army squeaks and guns had separate characteristics for the weight of the projectile, in Russian national units. There were tools from 1/8 hryvnia to a pood. At the beginning of the 18th century, on behalf of Peter I, a domestic system of calibers was developed under the leadership of General Feldzeugmeister Count Bruce. The Hartmann scale was taken as the basis. This system divided the guns according to the artillery weight of the projectile (cast iron core). The unit of measurement was the artillery pound - a cast-iron core with a diameter of 2 inches and a weight of 115 spools (approximately 490 grams). It did not matter what types of shells the gun fired - bombs, buckshot or something else. Only the theoretical artillery weight was taken into account, which the gun could shoot with its size. Tables were developed correlating artillery weight (caliber) with bore diameter. Artillerymen were required to operate with calibers and diameters. In the "Naval Charter" (St. Petersburg, 1720), in chapter seven "On the artillery officer, or constapel", in paragraph 2 it is written: "It is necessary to measure the cores, whether their diameters are similar to the calibers of the guns and place them on the ship according to their places." This system was introduced by royal decree in 1707 and lasted more than a century and a half.

• 3-pounder gun, 3-pounder gun - official names;
• artillery weight 3 pounds - the main characteristic of the gun;
• size 2.8 inches - diameter of the bore, an auxiliary characteristic of the gun.

In practice, it was a small cannon, firing rounds weighing about 1.5 kg and having a caliber (in our understanding) of about 70 mm. D. E. Kozlovsky in his book gives the translation of Russian artillery weight into metric calibers:

• 3 pounds - 76 mm,
• 4 lbs - 88 mm,
• 6 pounds - 96 mm,
• 12 pounds - 120 mm,
• 18 pounds - 137 mm,
• 24 lbs - 152 mm,
• 60 pounds - 195 mm.

A special place in this system was occupied by explosive shells (bomb). Their weight was measured in poods (1 pood - 40 trade pounds - equals approximately 16.3 kg). This is due to the fact that the bombs were hollow, with explosives inside, that is, they were made of materials of different densities. In their production, it was much more convenient to operate with generally accepted weight units.

D. Kozlovsky gives the following ratios:

• 1/4 pood - 120 mm,
• 1/2 - 152,
• 1 pood - 196,
• 2 - 245.v
• 3 - 273,
• 5 - 333.

For bombs, a special weapon was intended - a bombard, or mortar. Its tactical and technical characteristics, combat missions and calibration system make it possible to speak of a special type of artillery. In practice, small bombards were often fired with ordinary cannonballs, and then the same gun had different calibers - a general 12 pounds and a special 10 pounds.

The introduction of calibers, among other things, has become a good financial incentive for soldiers and officers. So, in the “Naval Charter”, printed in St. Petersburg in 1720, in the chapter “On Rewarding”, the amounts of award payments for cannons taken from the enemy are given:

• 30-pound - 300 rubles,
• 24 - 250,
• 18 - 210,
• 12 - 170,
• 8 - 130,
• 6 - 90,
• 4 and 3 - 50,
• 2 and below - 15.

In the second half of the 19th century, with the introduction of rifled artillery, the scale was adjusted due to changes in the characteristics of the projectile, but the principle remained the same.