The formation of a long trunk in the ancestors of the modern elephant. History of elephants, rhinos, horses. Russian dogs learn to ride the subway
And it all started, according to historians, back in 1884, when an unknown author proposed the concept of a "unicycle", that is, a bicycle with one wheel.
However, just such a unicycle, as depicted in the book Victorian Inventions - "Inventions of the Victorian era", apparently, was never created.
If you look closely at the drawing, you will notice that the pilot of the "unicycle" is sitting in his apparatus, as if in a cage, surrounded by long knitting needles.
On air traction.
Although, of course, it can be assumed that the double rim of the leading and only wheel could open into two parts, like a giant oyster ...
The next documented reference to the idea of a unicycle occurred exactly twenty years later - in 1904.
Mono Carriage.
The gasoline engine has already ceased to be a curiosity and the author was able to refuse to use weak human legs.
The car, which consisted of a huge, almost human-sized wheel and an internal frame with a motor attached to it, a seat and stabilizing wheels, was presented at an exhibition in Milan and, as the newspaper La Vie de l'Automobile wrote, aroused the delight of the most respectable public. . After that, the device was safely forgotten.
The twenties and thirties of the last century can rightly be called the “golden age” of the unicycle: from 1923 to 1937, at least six designs were built and even patented using gasoline and even electric engines.
In 1911 an American Tom Coates Clinton patented a unicycle in which he installed a pusher propeller.
Taking into account the too low stability of most single-wheeled units (remember how you rode as a child in truck tires), they did not find best solution than to use the widest possible supporting frame for its construction.
The resulting wheel, apparently, has become even more stable than the authors wanted: a rare engine will be able to move such a colossus, and it was generally impossible to force it to turn off the once chosen direction of movement.
Anyway, the Dynosphere pilot pictured in the photo looks very stressed...
In short, old Europe and her engineers divorced from reality have once again confirmed their complete failure.
The business of promoting the idea of \u200b\u200bthe unicycle again stalled for almost sixty years, until an American took up the design. Moreover, not just an American, but a real biker! So to speak, a fanatic in the full sense of the word.
Dynasphere is a unique project and an attempt to change the perception of society about the design of personal transport. As for its time, the project is simply incredible, but the period of its appearance is even more impressive. The Dynasphere transport was developed by Dr. J.A. Purves, who called the essence of the concept "spherical movement". He openly declared that his project would revolutionize transport design, but in the end nothing came of it. However, already for the idea of Doctor Purves can be praised.
Let's find out more about him + video under the cut ...
Back in 1932, Dr. John Archibald Purves invented an unusual vehicle for that and for today, called the Dynasphere. Dynasphere is a three-meter steel wheel, weighing about 450 kilograms, which, according to the designer, was intended for use as a personal transport, as a replacement for cars.
The Dynasphere vehicle was made in several copies of two types. The first option was a single-seat variant, powered by a 2.5-horsepower gasoline engine that allowed this huge wheel to reach speeds of 40 km/h (25 mph). A single-seat version of the Dynasphere was also made, powered by an electric motor. The only passenger, part-time driver, was placed inside this wheel on a special platform, where the engine was also located, sliding along the inner surface. To make turns, the driver had to deviate to the right or left, shifting the center of gravity of the entire unit and praying that there would be no obstacles on the way
The second variant of the Dynasphere was a two-seat version, powered by a 6-horsepower gasoline engine, and the platform on which the driver, passenger and engine were located was equipped with a suspension with an adjustable tilt angle relative to the wheel, which made it possible to control the direction of the Dynasphere as in a car - turn steering wheel. Dr. Purves designed several more variants of the Dynasphere, Dynasphere 5 and Dynasphere 8, which could carry five and eight people, respectively.
Looking at the pictures and the name "Dynasphere" one might wonder why the word "sphere" appeared in the name of the device, resembling a ring or donut in shape? It turns out that the outer surface of the Dynasphere is part of a sphere, which can be obtained by cutting off the sides of the ball in parallel relative to its center. With this trick, Dr. Purves managed to overcome the main drawback of unicycles - their instability.
A few more models from 1920.
47-year-old Kerry McLean started small: his first unicycle, assembled on the basis of a tractor wheel and equipped with a forty horsepower water-cooled gasoline engine, had an internal diameter of only about ninety centimeters.
However, this unit was the first unicycle to reach speeds of more than a hundred kilometers per hour and the first unicycle officially registered by the Michigan Highway Patrol.
According to McLean himself, his car does not show the usual drawback for other unicycles: even with heavy braking, the driver does not roll over his head, but only “nods” a little. Little bit.
The design turned out to be so successful that McLean even founded his own company McLean Wheel and designed a less powerful (only five horsepower) but quite commercial model based on the record prototype, which, having paid only $ 8.5 thousand dollars, every fan of extreme driving can purchase.
Of course, the American did not stop there and built a couple more units, now equipped with a V-shaped eight from a Buick car: McLean V8 and McLean V8 Rocket Roadster, which looks more like a small but vicious helicopter.
Unfortunately, the engine power is not specified, but Buick Wildcat cars were equipped with V-shaped eights with power from 325 to 370 horsepower.
So, if everything goes well, then soon Kerry will set another world record for unicycles: 160 km per hour!
But what dreams did past generations of designers have
Clipping from a 1925 magazine.
Computer controlled.
Mono - Bus.
Represented even military application these units!
From 1867 to the present, about 40 major projects of monocycles have been registered and patented - vehicles with one wheel. Some designs were so "brilliant" from a technical point of view that it is not possible to implement them even now. And only a few designs of monocycles were destined to be published. One of them, embodied in hardware, was the Edison-Puton Monowheel, which was built in 1910 in France.
Naturally, the main problem for a unicycle is its stability. Some modern designs use gyroscopic stabilizers, take for example: RYNO, but it is worth noting that on high speeds such a system is unlikely to help, especially since RYNO is just a scooter with maximum speed at 20 km/h. In any case, until the unicycle is equipped with an intelligent balancing system, riding it will be akin to a circus trick, with a high probability of an accident, as you can see by watching the video.
But, back to our main topic. The Edison-Puton unicycle was restored by the German Ferdinand Schlenker and is currently in full working order. Its single wheel is powered by a 150cc De Dion gasoline engine with 3.5 horsepower.
Designer Ben Wilson presented his version of a unicycle at the Man of the 21st Century exhibition in Tokyo. The exhibition was supposed to solve those problems that were not solved in the past centuries, and Ben's bike fully fits the conditions of the exhibition.
“I understand that humanity will not immediately switch to unicycles instead of old, two-wheeled ones. Rather, my invention proves that a person can solve any problem that he takes on, ”says Ben.
Judging by the diagram and photo, a deaf gear is used. In theory, longitudinal balancing is impossible without it (?). Also, I wonder how he is doing with the transverse balancing - in the photo he rests against the wall with the steering wheel. The center of gravity is low, I think there should be no problems. All in all, an interesting concept.
Look, it's almost half of an ordinary motorcycle! And so the design decision can get out. This is an Italian model.
Greetings from Russia.
For example, there is a unicycle RIOT Wheel, who looks absolutely amazing - it seems that he has just been on the set of some post-apocalyptic movie. Never seen a driver in such an unusual location.
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Jack Lyall (Jake Lyall) from the USA reinvented the wheel (" R e I event O f T he Wheel" - "the reinvention of the wheel"), giving it the functionality of a unicycle. This exotic steampunk-style vehicle was demonstrated by Jack in 2003 at the annual Burning Man festival, where such a flight of fancy is very welcome.
While watching the video, it seems that the seat with the driver is held in a raised position due to acceleration. In fact, inside the wheel is a heavy counterweight, as well as a motor from a Honda scooter, which can change its position inside the wheel, achieving balance. Thanks to the movement of the engine inside the wheel and the principle of "squirrels in the wheel", RIOT Wheel can reach speeds of 46 km/h.
The stability of the unicycle is given not only by the width of the wheel and the weight of the structure (almost half a ton), but also by the installed gyroscope. Turns on the RIOT Wheel seem to be very difficult, but there are some developments in control - due to the tilt of the gyroscope and the seat.
The author of the one-wheeler planned to release new versions of his creation, in particular, on an electric motor, but so far nothing has been heard about this. The site http://www.theriotwheel.com is raising funds from everyone who wants to help.
Lyall built his wheel specifically for the next (2003) annual Burning Man festival, which takes place during the week in the American Black Rock desert.
A couple of words about the festival, which perfectly characterizes the author of the invention, cannot be avoided here.
This forum is attended by tens of thousands of people who, as we would say, have "an awl in one place." It's boring for them to be like everyone else. They need self-expression. In a creative and constructive, note, form.
So, outlandish luminous castles and unusual sculptures, mysterious cars and other products of the activity of restless personalities appear once a year in the desert.
Unlike well-known unicycles, the driver of the RIOT Wheel does not sit inside the wheel, but outside. Ahead. From the outside, it looks like it should fall. That with a sharp acceleration, he will tip over on his back, and when braking, he will bury his nose in the ground.
But nothing of the kind happens, as you might guess, due to the opposition of a cunning system of weights hidden inside the wheel.
Actually, there are two main counterweights. One - a special load (204 kilograms) at the end of the "crane" - a system of levers that automatically occupy the desired position.
The second counterweight is an engine (ICE, 80 "cubes", 4 cycles, 6 horsepower, Honda), capable of changing its position inside the wheel regardless of the first counterweight.
There is also a gyroscope (weighing 30 kilograms), rotating in a vertical plane, but capable of deviating along the horizontal axis, responding to the rotation of the control knobs. It serves as a "rudder".
Also, the driver's seat, which is deflected to the sides by 15 degrees, contributes to the control of the machine.
The main counterweight is positioned to balance the seated driver. Regardless of whether the wheel is in place or rides.
We note in passing that a very wide tire (along with a gyroscope) also contributes to the stability of the structure in the "starting" position, when the driver's seat on a special frame comes off the ground.
The internal combustion engine itself deviates forward (during acceleration) or backward (during braking), in proportion to the developed torque (braking) moment.
Scheme of Lyalla's unicycle. A - frame, B - seat, C - control knobs for the engine, gyroscope and "crane", D - internal combustion engine, E - transmission, F - brake, G - main counterweight, H - gyroscope, I - gas tank, J - tire width 50 centimeters (illustration from popsci.com).
All mechanics are designed so as to automatically keep the center of gravity of the entire system at the right point: in front of the wheel axle during acceleration and uniform motion, behind the axle when braking or under the axle when stopped without lowering the seat to the ground.
The deviation of the center of gravity, says the engineer, is enough to realize the full torque of the internal combustion engine and intensive braking up to the skid.
The weight of the whole machine is 500 kilograms, the speed is about 46 kilometers per hour.
The position of the center of gravity of the system (red dot), the driver, the engine (blue square) and the counterweight (green sector) during landing, standby position, acceleration and braking (illustrations from theriotwheel.com).
Now, under the "veil of secrecy", as the inventor jokes, Lyall is building RIOT 2 and RIOT 3.
They will be significantly (about twice) lighter than the first sample, and will no longer be driven by a weak internal combustion engine, but by hefty electric motors with a capacity of 30 and 200 horsepower, respectively.
One of these devices (the third one) should become the fastest unicycle in the world.
By the way, as far as we managed to find out, the current record for monocycles is 85 kilometers per hour.
In this picture you can see some of the stuffing RIOT Wheel (photo from theriotwheel.com).
By the way, about the tests of another American monster - the McLean V8 monowheel unicycle, with an eight-cylinder engine from a passenger Buick, at full speed - until something is heard.
One Spaniard, who was fond of the history of the creation of bicycles, decided to recreate unicycle sample of 1873. To do this, he studied a lot of information and documents of the 19th century, and using the technologies of those times, he was able to make his dream come true by creating his amazing masterpiece - an exact copy of the 1873 unicycle, invented in France
To create this unique transport tools were used steel and bronze parts, wood (oak), leather. It is also interesting that you can ride it, i.e. device is fully functional. The inventor put his work up for sale, the starting price is 13 thousand dollars.
Here is an example of such a concept.
Unicycles have been developed and designed for a long time. The difference between the Yamaha concept and many others like it is in principle and in size. Here the pilot does not sit ON, but IN this very one-wheeled vehicle.
The wheel is very big. With smooth mirror elements. Looks very, very futuristic. So far, it exists only in the picture and in design programs.
The author of the project is Japanese designer Yuji Fujimura. Moreover, Yamaha notes that they ordered this authoritative person to develop the design of this ultra-modern model not just like that, but with an eye on commercial use - so that sometime in the future such wheels could really start to roam the streets!
Somewhere in Japan they came up with such an option.
Iranian artist and designer Mohammad Ghezel has unveiled a futuristic electric car concept. eRinGo looks like a mobile barrel of beer and resembles a spinning druid warrior from the first Star Wars series.
eRinGo, which is still only a computer model, is supposed to accommodate two people. An electric motor rotates three rings around the circumference of this gondola. Similar to the Segway, the integrated gyroscope keeps the eRinGo stable while moving.
This device is set in motion with the help of one - the central ring, the diameter of which is larger than that of the side ones, providing additional stability, and also allow you to enter the turn sharply.
In Iran Ghezel is already known. For his two previous works, he received an award from the Iran Khodro Design Competition, which showcases the largest Iranian car manufacturers.
"I love futuristic design and believe that basically anything is possible," Ghezel told American online publication Wired. "Current technologies can be easily found in modern cars, but we can create the future ourselves. Perhaps this will encourage engineers and scientists to develop our ideas"
The name eRinGo means electric rings that make it go and in translation sounds like "electric rings that create movement." This "car" will be able to manage each of the two sitting inside. As soon as one of the "pilots" takes control, the partner's electronics are deactivated.
When creating his unusual car, Ghezel took the most important part - the wheel - and integrated the engine and cab into it. "Perhaps this form is still considered unsuitable today, but my motto is: Nothing is impossible. Fantasy is limitless"
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eRinGo looks fantastic, but in reality there are already similar concepts. The so-called unicycles have been built since 1869, but at that time they had a manual drive. It is assumed that the first motorized wheel was the Garavaglia monowheel of the 1904 model.
Here's another interesting modern version.
If you are tired of walking from the garage to the house, feel free to buy NAO Aphaenogaster scooter. The three-wheeled cart only looks ridiculous, but in fact, in front of you is a very convenient vehicle. It is light (20 kg), fast enough (more than 20 km/h) and environmentally friendly - it is powered by electricity (350 V motor). Only one handle is used for control and no rights are required. True, the battery charge is only enough for 12 km. 
The Chinese army trains balance using unicycles.
“Time passes, the eco-trend rules and it’s time, after children’s bicycles with a gyroscope, heavy and expensive Segways and other clumsy experiments, to transfer people from bicycles and cars to the right transport, more convenient and compact.” The designer of the Solowheel unicycle and the founder of Inventist, Shane Chen, reasoned something like this. The Solowheel is a wheel with footrests and a battery that carries the rider by itself. When driving, the passenger-driver stands on the steps, and the wheel spins in the casing between his legs. To accelerate, you need to lean forward, loading your socks with your weight, to slow down, you should lean back, loading your heels. Left-right weight transfer allows maneuvering.
TTX unicycle Solowheel:
speed - up to 19 km/h
power reserve - up to 2 hours
weight - 9 kg
battery charging time is less than an hour.
price - about $1500
the machine has folding footrests and a carrying handle. Charging the unicycle is from a conventional electrical outlet, in addition, when driving with a low load on the motor, for example, downhill, the battery charges itself. It is clear that, despite the optimism of those riding in the commercial, for a comfortable ride on a unicycle, you need excellent coverage under the wheel, without holes and curbs, as well as a helmet, knee pads and other protective accessories. And then the way from home to work or a store can be done on one wheel without standing in traffic jams. Inventist has been implementing various crazy ideas since 2003 and is interested in distributing its products.
But modern cinematography!
Well, tell me, what of the interesting monocycle I forgot?
sources
95live.ru
scooteruz.blogspot.com
itmizm.com
mhealth.ru
science.compulenta.ru
gizmod.ru
avto-vip.com
www.membrana.ru
autoexpert.in.ua
motonews.ru
The longest time to hold a motorcycle on your head
Gerard Jesse did it without a helmet on his head. The result is 14.93 seconds. Don't ask why.
The longest time to hold a Harley with your hands
Julie Moody saddled up his Harley-Davidson, grabbed the steering wheel with his hands and stepped on the gas. Not very useful for tires, but very popular in the motorcycle scene. Moody's record is 4.53 seconds. Yes, and it's a woman.
The highest mountain trip
Six guys from the Disha Motorcycle Club in North Kolkata rode 6,245 kilometers on a mountain road in India on Honda Hero motorcycles. This is difficult not only because the road is difficult and dangerous: the engine often lacks oxygen in the rarefied mountain air.
On one wheel
The record for riding on one wheel belongs to Yasuyuki Kudo: in 1991, he drove 331 kilometers on the rear wheel of his bike.
most expensive motorcycle
This is one of those records that can be broken at any moment, but for now it belongs to the Ecosse Spirit ES1 - the bike designed by F1 car designers costs $ 3.6 million (232,025,536 rubles at the Central Bank exchange rate on August 11, 2016).
Most passengers
For most, a motorcycle is a transport for one. Or two. Three, if with a stroller. However, in some places the motorcycle serves as a family car. The record was set in just such a country: 56 people on one Royal Enfield Bullet motorcycle. True, these people were standing on a platform welded to the motorcycle.
First double somersault on a motorcycle
The first double back somersault on a motorcycle was performed by Travis Pastrana at the World Extreme Games in 2006. Don't try it yourself: Pastrana said that the difficulty with this trick is that if something goes wrong, then you fall face down. The motorcycle falls from above.
The fastest motorcycle in the world
Technically, the Top Oil-Ack Attack is a motorcycle, but only because it has two wheels on the same axle. It has a rocket engine, and it reaches speeds of up to 605.698 km/h. However, this record could be broken next year.
Standing on a motorcycle
The longest continuous standing motorcycle ride took place in 2013. The captain of the Indian army Abajit Malawat rode 16 kilometers standing on a bike.
Mom, look, I'm without hands.
222 kilometers in Rome - a city with not the most empty roads. No comment.
People are divided not only into ordinary and, but also into evolutionists and creationists. The argument of the second in favor of the fact that God created all life on Earth sounds like iron: “If from a monkey, then why are the current monkeys in no hurry to turn into people?”
The speed of human life and the speed of evolution of animal and plant species do not coincide at all. To see the eternal, you must first learn to follow the movement of the hour hand or how the grass grows.
And then we will understand that in addition to the monkey and man, there are creatures on the planet whose evolution we did not notice without a special prompt.
1 Elephants Are Evolving, Losing Their Tusks And Attractiveness To Poachers
Elephants have long been hunted for a small part of their giant carcasses - ivory, i.e. tusks. The hunters will kill the elephant, cut off the tusks, and leave the corpse to the flies and hyenas. In 1989, the trade in ivory was permanently banned worldwide. By that time, there were no more than a million wild elephants left in Africa. But the taboo on the tusk trade simply drove the knackering industry into the shadows, so they didn’t stop killing elephants. Every year, the population of giants in wild nature reduced by 7.5%. Today there are less than half a million of them. And all because of the poachers.
People good will could not help the elephants survive, so the proboscis decided to deal with the problem on their own - by natural selection. In order not to look like a victim of an avid hunter, elephants are increasingly born without tusks. The number of "unattractive" elephants for last years increased from 2 to 5%. And in one of the African reserves, 38% of elephants roam free without their formidable weapons, they were born that way.
Through the process of natural selection, female elephants began to prefer those males that do not have tusks. Those born with tusks run the risk of not growing up to marriageable age and catching a bullet.
Elephants really need tusks. To dig the ground and fight with hostile brethren. But nature decided that losing this important tool is better than living in constant fear for the life of oneself and one's relatives.
2. Russian dogs learn to ride the subway
Today in Moscow, and even then according to underestimated data, 35 thousand stray dogs live. They bred so many after the collapse Soviet Union when the system of trapping wild synanthropic animals ordered these animals to live long. For several generations of life in the stone jungle, among people and, these dogs have become very smart, much smarter and more cunning than their domestic counterparts. For various reasons, only 3% of puppies survive to childbearing age. Some are killed, some are eaten. Only the smartest survive, ideally adapted to life in the metropolis, with all its dubious charms like the subway.
Hundreds of dogs have taken up residence in subway stations and have learned to travel from station to station. Their life goes underground, they know what shift and at what station the grandmother works, who feeds them. Day after day they wait for their trains, climb into the cars, fall asleep and wake up at the right stations. The scent helps the dogs in this - each station smells differently.
And that is not all. Packs of wild dogs organized the process of begging in a scientific way - the leaders send the smallest and sweetest-looking dogs to beg for food, the big ones are engaged in driving away strangers and robbery, attacking weak homeless people who found some food in the garbage heap intended for the capital's dogs.
3 Hudson River Fish Got Immunity To Toxic Waste
From 1947 to 1976 the Hudson River in North America considered the dirtiest on the mainland. Because of the millions of pounds of asbestol released into the Hudson by General Electric. Here's how it was:
The animals that lived in the Hudson had two options - either die out or mutate into some kind of "ninja turtles". The second option was preferred by a local species of cod fish, the Atlantic tomcod.
In 20-50 generations, the tomcod did to itself what normal fish spend thousands of years doing. The patriot of the Hudson River has evolved and acquired immunity to the poison dissolved in the waves of the fatherland. Due to the fact that he lost genes that are sensitive to such toxins. That is, the fish saved its DNA from. And, of course, I felt like a hostess in the dirty Hudson. To the delight of the fishermen - those of them who are not afraid of mutants. After all, tomkod, they say, the production is tasty.
Some people like to look at birds, even garbage pigeons, and say: here they are, dinosaurs. Alluding to the antiquity of the feathered class. And admirers look at crocodiles (a log is a log, in a zoo) with admiring respect - here they are, they say, the oldest inhabitants of the Earth. Say, reptiles have everything in the past, otherwise the current, what is left, must be protected.
Meanwhile, reptiles in our time continue to actively evolve.
4. Lizards evolve into dancers
Meet this Sceloporus - fence iguana:
For millions of years, these calm lizards lived for themselves, did not grieve in North America, until the so-called lizards appeared in their habitat 70 years ago. fire ants. Aggressive insects in the new place did not have natural enemies. Worse, no chemistry takes these pests. 12 fire ants, attacking clearly and harmoniously, easily and in a minute killed a fence iguana for food with their bites. Gnawing to the bone.
So that under the stings of insects, fence iguanas grow long hind legs on which they can ... dance, dropping annoying goosebumps from the body to the ground. Ants do not have time to inject poison into the soft tissues of the lizard, and she herself has time to escape.
Dancing talents are passed from old iguanas to babies. Young lizards are afraid of any ants, not only fire ants, so they indulge in reptilian breakdancing almost from birth. And it helps...
5 Another Lizard Goes From Carnivore To Herbivore
Yes, and among the reptiles now there are convinced vegans. A funny evolutionary story happened to the Italian ruin lizard, like this one:
In 1971, zoologists decided to settle the ruin lizard in a new place for her - on one of the Croatian islands of the Adriatic. Ten instances of the creature landed on uncharted land. There were no natural enemies for the ruin lizard in Croatia, people did not pay attention to reptiles. Local tailed competitors had to make room and die out - the guests from Italy simply ate them clean. And they began to “think” how to live on - that is, what they should eat now in the closed biotope of a hospitable island.
The history of Proboscis - a detachment of mammals that includes mammoths and modern elephants - is one of the most complex in the taxonomy of fossil mammals. Proboscis have been known since the Eocene (about 40 million years ago) to the present day. Mammoths and elephants are representatives of the same family among several proboscis families. All these animals were united by the term "trunk", which means the front mouth. The proboscis organ developed from the earliest proboscis. Among modern animals, sirens (large marine mammals) and hyraxes (small mammals found in Africa). These mammals do not have a trunk, but in some features of the structure of the skeleton and teeth they are similar to proboscis.
The oldest known proboscis are MORITERIUMS. Fossils of Moriteriums were found in North Africa, their age is about 40 million years (Late Eocene). They were small, up to 1 meter high, animals - amphibians. Moriteriums turned out to be a dead end branch in the evolution of proboscis.
DEINOTERIUMS (= DINOTHERIA?) - ancient proboscis that arose in Africa in the Miocene about 24 million years ago. In the Pleistocene, they were also distributed in Eurasia. They did not enter North America. They became extinct about 2 million years ago. Peculiar tusks were only in the lower jaws. In the process of evolution, deinotheriums became larger, reaching 4 meters in height. Deinotheriums are considered a side branch evolutionary development proboscis.
PALEOMASTODONS are known only from the late Eocene (40 million years ago) of North Africa. One of the most ancient proboscis, giving rise to the gomphotherium and mastodon families. The tusks were small, oval in cross section, both in the upper and lower jaws. Between the tusks and molars there was a diastema (gap). The trunk is small. Of all the ancient proboscideans, paleomastodons are more similar to modern elephants than others.
AMEBELODON. Amebelodon, a genus of mastodons belonging to the family Gomrhotheriidae, was common in North America in the late Miocene (about 24 million years ago). The upper tusks were small, while the lower ones big size and flattened. Probably, with the lower tusks, Amebelodon dug out the roots of plants.
PLATIBELODON. The remains of Platybelodon were found for the first time only in 1920 in the Miocene deposits (about 20 million years ago) of Asia. In the lower jaw, there are original spade-shaped tusks, perfectly adapted to extracting aquatic and marsh vegetation, which the Platybelodon fed on. In this it is comparable to the American amebelodon.
HOMPHOTERIUM. 
Gomphotherium - a mastodon, common in Africa about 20 million years ago, settled from Africa through Europe to Asia up to Hindustan. The upper and lower tusks were equally well developed. Most likely they lived in moist, swampy landscapes, which is evidenced by strongly elongated jaws.
MASTODON. A separate family, Mastodontidae, arose in the middle of the Oligocene (30 million years ago) in Africa. Representatives of this family settled throughout Africa, Eurasia and America in the Miocene (about 24 million years ago). Mastodons survived in North America until the end of the Pleistocene. Asc 
some of the fossil mastodons are only 10,000 years old, which corresponds to the time of the development of the ancient Indian culture. These were large proboscideans, in which the chewing surface of the molars was covered with rows of large tubercles. Mastodons had large upper tusks and, occasionally, in males, small lower ones. It is possible that the ancient Indians hunted for them contributed to the disappearance of mastodons.
STEGODON. Stegodons are representatives of a separate family, close relatives of the elephant family (which includes ma 
mont). The most ancient finds in Asia date back to 8 million years (end of the Miocene). Later they settled in Europe and Africa. They were similar in size to modern elephants, the upper tusks were long and massive. Stegodons fed on branches and leaves of trees.
PERVOSLON (PRIMELEFAS) The family of elephants - Elephantidae, includes mammoths and living elephants. Unlike mastodons, molars in representatives 
of this family with transverse ridges, and tusks without enamel. The most primitive member of the family is primelephas (or first elephant), which is probably the direct ancestor of mammoths and modern elephants. His remains were found in Central Africa and date back to the end of the Miocene - 5 million years ago. The probable habitat of the first elephant was forest areas and savannahs. The dimensions of the first elephant are comparable to modern Indian elephant- height at the shoulders is about 3 meters. Unlike other elephants, the first elephant had small tusks in the lower jaw.
SOUTHERN ELEPHANT. The most ancient finds of mammoths appear in the early Pliocene of East and South Africa about 4 million years ago. It was in southern Africa that the most favorable landscape conditions for the existence of mammoths were. Mammoths are usually classified as a separate subfamily. 
o Mammuthinae, which is characterized by a skull with a rounded top, without a saddle depression. The intermaxillary bones are laterally narrowed in their middle part. The tusks have a spiral curvature. The evolution of mammoths followed the path of adaptation to living in savannah and forest-steppe landscapes. The first mammoths belonged to the genus Archidiskodon. Representatives of this genus settled from Africa to Eurasia and North America. In the Pleistocene, these mammoths formed a single Eurasian-American range after the southern elephant (Archidiskodon meridionalis) entered North America 1.5 million years ago. On the territory of Eurasia, the southern elephant is the direct ancestor of the steppe mammoth and woolly mammoth. In North America, according to some experts, the southern elephant became the ancestor of the Colombian mammoth. The first mammoths were large elephants up to 4.5 meters high at the withers.
STEPPE MAMMUT. The steppe mammoth Mammuthus trogontherii became a direct descendant of the southern elephant in Eurasia. It was a huge elephant, up to 5 meters high. Fossils have been known since the early Pleistocene from the steppe and forest-steppe zones of Eurasia. It is possible that the Middle Pleistocene Khazar mammoth belongs to the same species, which is a transitional link from the steppe mammoth to the woolly mammoth. Significant climatic changes that occurred in Eurasia in the middle of the Pleistocene and were expressed in cooling and increased aridity led to the wide spread of open landscapes such as the arctic steppe, tundra and forest tundra. Under the influence of the changed natural environment, mammoths were forced to adapt to feeding on tough grassy and shrubby vegetation.
COLOMBIAN MAMMUT. The Columbian mammoth lived in North America during the Middle and Late Pleistocene. 
According to the degree of evolution, it corresponded to the Eurasian steppe mammoth, however, it survived in America almost until the end of the Pleistocene. Its size varied greatly, from dwarfs on the Chanel Islands (California), about 1.8 meters high, to giants, 4-4.5 meters high in the southern regions of North America. By the end of the Pleistocene, scattered populations of Columbian mammoths had developed, crushed under the influence of isolation and described as Jefferson's mammoths. Mammoths finally disappeared in America 12 thousand years ago, not without the help of the ancient Indians.
The woolly or Eurasian mammoth (Mammuthus primigenius) inhabited a vast territory from the British Isles in Europe to Chukotka in Asia. In North America, its range occupied the northwestern part of the continent. The height at the withers of this elephant reached 3.5 meters in males and 2.5 meters in females. Most likely, the woolly mammoth has become the most adapted species to living in the Arctic latitudes, I 
being a direct descendant of the steppe mammoth. At the turn of the Pleistocene and Holocene, under the influence of climate change related to climate humidification in the Arctic part of the Northern Hemisphere, the range of mammoths began to shrink rapidly, retreating to the Arctic coast. The last mammoths died out about 3 thousand years ago on Wrangel Island in the Chukchi Sea. Many forms of the woolly mammoth of various ranks have been described, the systematic position of which is unclear. In addition, stratigraphy often indicates two unidentified forms: early and late, which causes confusion in taxonomy. In addition to the subspecies Mammuthus primigenius primigenius, which lived at the end of the Pleistocene in Northern Eurasia, one more Holocene subspecies from Wrangel Island, Mammuthus primigenius vrangeliensis, can be identified. In general, the subspecies taxonomy of the mammoth has not yet been sufficiently developed and needs to be revised. According to the morphology of the teeth and skeleton, mammoths are closer to modern Asian elephants than to African ones.
