What a trope for a lonely person. Artistic tropes in literature

Trope - the use of words and expressions in a figurative sense in order to create artistic image, at which the enrichment of the value is obtained. Tropes include: epithet, oxymoron, comparison, metaphor, personification, metonymy, synecdoche, hyperbole, litote, pun, irony, sarcasm, paraphrase. No work of art is complete without tropes. The literary word is multi-valued, the writer creates images, playing with the meanings and combinations of words, using the environment of the word in the text and its sound.

Metaphor - the use of a word in a figurative sense; a phrase that characterizes a given phenomenon by transferring to it the features inherent in another phenomenon (due to one or another similarity of the converging phenomena), which is so. arr. replaces him. The peculiarity of a metaphor as a type of trope is that it is a comparison, the members of which have merged so much that the first member (what was compared) is displaced and completely replaced by the second (what was compared).

"A bee from a wax cell / Flies for tribute in the field" (Pushkin)

where honey is compared with tribute and a beehive with a cell, with the first terms replaced by the second. Metaphor, like any trope, is based on the property of the word that in its meaning it relies not only on the essential and general qualities of objects (phenomena), but also on all the wealth of its secondary definitions and individual qualities and properties. For example, in the word "star" we, along with the essential and general meaning (heavenly body) we also have a number of secondary and individual signs - the radiance of a star, its remoteness, etc. M. and arises through the use of "secondary" meanings of words, which allows us to establish new connections between them (a secondary sign of tribute is that it is collected ; cells - its tightness, etc.). For artistic thinking, these "secondary" signs, expressing moments of sensuous visualization, are a means of revealing through them the essential features of the reflected class reality. M. enriches our understanding of a given subject, attracting new phenomena to characterize it, expanding our understanding of its properties.

Metonymy is a kind of trope, the use of a word in a figurative sense, a phrase in which one word is replaced by another, as a metaphor, with the difference from the latter that this substitution can only be made by a word denoting an object (phenomenon) located in one or another (spatial, temporal, etc.) connection with the object (phenomenon), which is denoted by the replaced word. The meaning of metonymy is that it singles out a property in a phenomenon that, by its nature, can replace the rest. Thus, metonymy essentially differs from metaphor, on the one hand, by a greater real interconnection of substituting members, and, on the other hand, by greater limitation, the elimination of those features that are not directly given in this phenomenon. Like metaphor, metonymy is inherent in language in general, but it is of particular importance in artistic and literary creativity, receiving in each specific case its own class saturation and use.

"All flags will visit us", where the flags replace the countries (a part replaces the whole). The meaning of metonymy is that it singles out a property in a phenomenon that, by its nature, can replace the rest. Thus, metonymy essentially differs from metaphor, on the one hand, by a greater real relationship of substitute members, and on the other hand the other is bigger restrictiveness, the elimination of those features that are not directly noticeable in this phenomenon. Like metaphor, metonymy is inherent in language in general (cf., for example, the word "wiring", the meaning of which is metonymically extended from the action to its result), but it has a special meaning in artistic and literary creativity.

Synecdoche is a type of trope, the use of a word in a figurative sense, namely, the replacement of a word denoting a known object or group of objects with a word denoting a part of a named object or a single object.

Synecdoche is a type of metonymy. Synecdoche is a technique that consists in transferring meaning from one object to another on the basis of quantitative similarity between them.

"The buyer chooses quality products." The word "Buyer" replaces the entire set of possible buyers.

"Stern moored to the shore." The ship is meant.

Hyperbole is a technique in which an image is created through artistic exaggeration. Hyperbole is not always included in the set of tropes, but by the nature of the use of the word in a figurative sense to create an image, hyperbole is very close to tropes.

"I've said it a thousand times"

"We have enough food for six months"

"For four years we have been preparing an escape, we have saved three tons of grubs"

Litota is the opposite of hyperbole, a stylistic figure of explicit and deliberate understatement, belittling and destruction, with the aim of enhancing expressiveness. In essence, the litote is extremely close to hyperbole in its expressive meaning, which is why it can be considered as a type of hyperbole.

"A horse the size of a cat"

"A person's life is one moment"

"Waist, no thicker than the neck of a bottle"

Personification - an expression that gives an idea of ​​​​a concept or phenomenon by depicting it in the form of a living person endowed with properties this concept(for example, the image of the Greeks and Romans of happiness in the form of a capricious goddess-fortune, etc.).

Very often, personification is used in the depiction of nature, which is endowed with certain human features, "revived":

"the sea laughed"

"... The Neva rushed to the sea all night against the storm, not overcoming their violent dope ... and arguing

it became too much for her... The weather became more and more fierce, the Neva swelled and roared... and suddenly, like a wild beast, it rushed at the city... Siege! Attack! evil waves, like thieves, climb through the windows, etc.

Allegory is a conditional representation of abstract ideas (concepts) through a specific artistic image or dialogue. Thus, the difference between allegory and related forms of figurative expression (tropes) is the presence in it of specific symbolism, subject to abstract interpretation; therefore, the rather common definition of allegory as an extended metaphor (J. P. Richter, Fischer, Richard Meyer) is essentially incorrect, since the metaphor lacks that logical act of reinterpretation, which is integral to allegory. Of the literary genres based on allegory, the most important are: fable, parable , morality. But allegory can become the main artistic device of any genre in cases where abstract concepts and relationships become the subject of poetic creativity.

"He tangled up such allegories and equivocations that, it seems, a century would not have succeeded"

Antonomasia - a turn of speech, expressed in the replacement of the name or name by indicating some essential feature subject (for example: a great poet instead of Pushkin) or his relationship to something (the author of "War and Peace" instead of Tolstoy; Peleus son instead of Achilles). In addition, anthonomasia is also considered to be the replacement of a common noun with a proper name (Aesculapius instead of a doctor).

Epithet - refers to tropes, this is a figurative definition that gives an artistic description of an object or phenomenon. An epithet is a hidden comparison and can be expressed both as an adjective and as an adverb, noun, numeral or verb. Due to its structure and special function in the text, the epithet acquires some new meaning or semantic connotation, helps the word (expression) to acquire color, richness.

Nouns: "Here he is, the leader without squads," "My youth! My swarthy dove!"

Paraphrase is a syntactic-semantic figure that consists in replacing a one-word name of an object or action with a descriptive verbose expression. School and classical style distinguishes several types of paraphrases:

I. As a grammatical figure:

• a) the property of the object is taken as a control word, while the name of the object is taken as a controlled word: "The poet used to amuse the khans with rattlesnakes" (a paraphrase of the word "verses");
• b) the verb is replaced by a noun formed from the same stem with another (auxiliary) verb: "an exchange is made" instead of "is exchanged".

II. As a stylistic figure:

c) the name of the object is replaced by a descriptive expression, which is an expanded path (metaphor, metonymy, etc.): "send me, in the language of Delisle, twisted steel piercing the tarred head of the bottle, i.e. corkscrew"

Comparison is a comparison of one object or phenomenon with another, which gives the description a special figurativeness, visibility, pictoriality.

Examples: trope artwork

"There, like a black iron leg, ran, galloped poker"

"A white snowdrift rushes along the ground like a snake"

Means of enhancing the expressiveness of speech. The concept of a path. Types of tropes: epithet, metaphor, comparison, metonymy, synecdoche, hyperbole, litote, irony, allegory, personification, paraphrase.

A trope is a rhetorical figure, word or expression used in a figurative sense in order to enhance the figurativeness of the language, the artistic expressiveness of speech. Tropes are widely used in literary works, oratory and in everyday speech.

The main types of tropes: Epithet, metaphor, simile, metonymy, synecdoche, hyperbole, litote, irony, allegory, personification, paraphrase.

An epithet is a definition attached to a word that affects its expressiveness. It is expressed mainly by an adjective, but also by an adverb (“to love passionately”), a noun (“fun noise”), a numeral (second life).

An epithet is a word or a whole expression, which, due to its structure and special function in the text, acquires some new meaning or semantic connotation, helps the word (expression) to acquire color, richness. It is used in both poetry and prose.

epithets can be expressed different parts speech (mother-Volga, wind-tramp, bright eyes, damp earth). Epithets are a very common concept in literature, without them it is impossible to imagine a single work of art.

Under us with a cast-iron roar
Bridges instantly rattle. (A. A. Fet)

Metaphor (“transfer”, “figurative meaning”) is a trope, a word or an expression used in a figurative meaning, which is based on an unnamed comparison of an object with any other on the basis of their common feature. Turn of speech, consisting in the use of words and expressions in figuratively on the basis of some analogy, similarity, comparison.

There are 4 “elements” in the metaphor:

An object within a specific category,

The process by which this object performs a function,

Applications of this process to real situations, or intersections with them.

In lexicology, a semantic relationship between the meanings of one polysemantic word, based on the presence of similarity (structural, external, functional).

Metaphor often becomes an aesthetic end in itself and displaces the original original meaning of the word.

In the modern theory of metaphor, it is customary to distinguish between diaphora (sharp, contrasting metaphor) and epiphora (usual, erased metaphor).

An extended metaphor is a metaphor that is consistently implemented over a large fragment of a message or the entire message as a whole. Model: "The hunger for books continues: products from the book market are increasingly stale - they have to be thrown away without even trying."

A realized metaphor involves operating a metaphorical expression without taking into account its figurative nature, that is, as if the metaphor had a direct meaning. The result of the realization of a metaphor is often comical. Model: "I lost my temper and got on the bus."

Vanya is a real loach; This is not a cat, but a bandit (M.A. Bulgakov);

I do not regret, do not call, do not cry,
Everything will pass like smoke from white apple trees.
Withering gold embraced,
I won't be young anymore. (S. A. Yesenin)

Comparison

Comparison is a trope in which one object or phenomenon is likened to another according to some common feature for them. The purpose of the comparison is to reveal new, important properties that are advantageous for the subject of the statement in the object of comparison.

In comparison, the following are distinguished: the object being compared (object of comparison), the object with which the comparison takes place (means of comparison), and their common feature (base of comparison, comparative feature). One of distinguishing features comparison, is the mention of both compared objects, while the common feature is not always mentioned. Comparison should be distinguished from metaphor.

Comparisons are characteristic of folklore.

Comparison types

known different types comparisons:

Comparisons in the form of a comparative turnover, formed with the help of unions as if, as if, exactly: "A man is stupid as a pig, but cunning as hell." Non-union comparisons - in the form of a sentence with a compound nominal predicate: "My house is my fortress." Comparisons formed with the help of a noun in the instrumental case: "he walks like a gogol." Negative comparisons: "An attempt is not torture."

Crazy years, the extinct fun is hard for me, like a vague hangover (A.S. Pushkin);

Under it is a stream lighter than azure (M.Yu. Lermontov);

Metonymy

Metonymy (“renaming”, “name”) is a type of trope, a phrase in which one word is replaced by another, denoting an object (phenomenon) that is in one or another (spatial, temporal, etc.) connection with the object that is indicated replaced word. The replacement word is used in a figurative sense.

Metonymy should be distinguished from metaphor, with which it is often confused: metonymy is based on the replacement of words “by adjacency” (part instead of the whole or vice versa, class representative instead of the whole class or vice versa, receptacle instead of content or vice versa) and metaphor - “by similarity”. Synecdoche is a special case of metonymy.

Example: "All flags will visit us", where "flags" means "countries" (a part replaces the whole). The meaning of metonymy is that it singles out a property in a phenomenon that, by its nature, can replace the rest. Thus, metonymy essentially differs from metaphor, on the one hand, by a greater real interconnection of substituting members, and, on the other hand, by greater limitation, the elimination of those features that are not directly noticeable in this phenomenon. Like metaphor, metonymy is inherent in language in general (cf., for example, the word "wiring", the meaning of which is metonymically extended from the action to its result), but it has a special meaning in artistic and literary creativity.

In early Soviet literature, an attempt to maximize the use of metonymy both theoretically and practically was made by the constructivists, who put forward the principle of the so-called "locality" (the motivation of verbal means by the theme of the work, that is, their limitation by real dependence on the theme). However, this attempt was not sufficiently substantiated, since the promotion of metonymy at the expense of metaphor is illegitimate: these are two different ways of establishing a connection between phenomena that do not exclude, but complement each other.

Types of metonymy:

General language, general poetic, general newspaper, individual-author's, individual-creative.

Examples:

"Hand of Moscow"

"I ate three plates"

“Black tailcoats flashed and rushed apart and in heaps here and there”

Synecdoche

Synecdoche is a trope, a kind of metonymy, based on the transfer of meaning from one phenomenon to another on the basis of a quantitative relationship between them. Usually used in synecdoche:

Singular instead of plural: "Everything is sleeping - both man, and beast, and bird." (Gogol);

Plural instead of singular: "We all look at Napoleons." (Pushkin);

A part instead of a whole: “Have you any need? “In the roof for my family.” (Herzen);

The generic name instead of the specific one: "Well, sit down, luminary." (Mayakovsky) (instead of: the sun);

The specific name instead of the generic one: "Better than all, take care of the penny." (Gogol) (instead of: money).

Hyperbola

Hyperbole (“transition; excess, excess; exaggeration”) is a stylistic figure of explicit and intentional exaggeration, in order to enhance expressiveness and emphasize the thought said. For example: "I've said this a thousand times" or "we have enough food for six months."

Hyperbole is often combined with other stylistic devices, giving them the appropriate coloring: hyperbolic comparisons, metaphors (“the waves rose like mountains”). The character or situation depicted can also be hyperbolic. Hyperbole is also characteristic of the rhetorical, oratorical style, as a means of pathetic uplift, as well as the romantic style, where pathos is in contact with irony.

Examples:

Phraseological units and winged expressions

"sea of ​​tears"

"fast as lightning", "lightning fast"

"as numerous as the sand on the seashore"

“We haven’t seen each other for a hundred years!”

Prose

Ivan Nikiforovich, on the contrary, has trousers with such wide folds that if they were blown up, the whole yard with barns and buildings could be placed in them.

N. Gogol. The story of how Ivan Ivanovich quarreled with Ivan Nikiforovich

A million Cossack hats suddenly poured into the square. …

... for one hilt of my saber they give me the best herd and three thousand sheep.

N. Gogol. Taras Bulba

Poems, songs

About our meeting - what is there to say,
I waited for her, as they wait for natural disasters,
But you and I immediately began to live,
Without fear of detrimental consequences!

Litotes

Litota, litotes (simplicity, smallness, moderation) - a trope that has the meaning of understatement or deliberate mitigation.

Litota is a figurative expression, a stylistic figure, a turnover, which contains an artistic understatement of the size, strength of the meaning of the depicted object or phenomenon. Litota in this sense is the opposite of hyperbole, so it is called inverse hyperbole in another way. In litotes, on the basis of some common feature, two heterogeneous phenomena are compared, but this feature is represented in the phenomenon-means of comparison to a much lesser extent than in the phenomenon-object of comparison.

For example: “A horse the size of a cat”, “A person’s life is one moment”, etc.

Many litots are phraseological units or idioms: “turtle pace”, “at hand”, “the cat cried money”, “the sky seemed like a sheepskin”.

There is a litote in folk and literary tales: “Boy-with-a-finger”, “man-with-nail”, “girl-inch”.

Litota (otherwise: antenantiosis or antenantiosis) is also called a stylistic figure of deliberate softening of an expression by replacing a word or expression containing the assertion of some feature with an expression that denies the opposite feature. That is, an object or concept is defined through the negation of the opposite. For example: “smart” - “not stupid”, “agree” - “I don’t mind”, “cold” - “not warm”, “low” - “low”, “famous” - “notorious”, “dangerous” - “ unsafe", "good" - "not bad". In this meaning, litote is one of the forms of euphemism (a word or descriptive expression that is neutral in meaning and emotional “load”, usually used in texts and public statements to replace other words and expressions that are considered indecent or inappropriate.).

... and love for his wife will grow cold in him

Irony

Irony (“mockery”) is a trope, while the meaning, from the point of view of due, is hidden or contradicts (opposed) to the explicit `meaning`. Irony creates the feeling that the subject matter is not what it seems. Irony is the use of words in a negative sense, directly opposite to the literal one. Example: “Well, you are brave!”, “Smart-smart ...” Here, positive statements have a negative connotation.

Forms of irony

Direct irony is a way to belittle, give a negative or funny character to the described phenomenon.

Anti-irony is the opposite of direct irony and allows the object of anti-irony to be underestimated.

Self-irony is irony directed at one's own person. In self-irony and anti-irony, negative statements can imply a reverse (positive) connotation. Example: "Where can we, fools, drink tea."

Socratic irony is a form of self-irony constructed in such a way that the object to which it is addressed, as it were, independently comes to natural logical conclusions and finds the hidden meaning of the ironic statement, following the premises of the “not knowing the truth” subject.

An ironic worldview is a state of mind that allows you not to take common statements and stereotypes on faith, and not to take various "generally recognized values" too seriously.

"Did you all sing? This is the case:
So come on, dance!" (I. A. Krylov)

Allegory

Allegory (narrative) is an artistic comparison of ideas (concepts) through a specific artistic image or dialogue.

As a trope, allegory is used in poetry, parables, and morality. It arose on the basis of mythology, was reflected in folklore and was developed in fine arts. The main way of depicting allegory is a generalization of human concepts; representations are revealed in the images and behavior of animals, plants, mythological and fairy-tale characters, inanimate objects, which acquire a figurative meaning.

Example: justice - Themis (a woman with scales).

The nightingale is sad at the defeated rose,
hysterically sings over the flower.
But the garden scarecrow is shedding tears,
who secretly loved the rose.

Aidyn Khanmagomedov. two loves

Allegory is the artistic isolation of extraneous concepts, with the help of specific representations. Religion, love, soul, justice, strife, glory, war, peace, spring, summer, autumn, winter, death, etc. are depicted and presented as living beings. The qualities and appearance attached to these living beings are borrowed from the actions and consequences of what corresponds to the isolation contained in these concepts, for example, the isolation of battle and war is indicated by means of military weapons, the seasons - by means of the flowers, fruits or occupations corresponding to them, impartiality - by means of weights and blindfolds, death through clepsydra and scythes.

That with a quivering relish,
then a friend in the arms of the soul,
like a lily with a poppy,
kisses with the heart of the soul.

Aidyn Khanmagomedov. Kissing pun.

personification

Personification (personification, prosopopoeia) is a trope, the attribution of properties and signs of animate objects to inanimate ones. Very often, personification is used in the depiction of nature, which is endowed with certain human features.

Examples:

And woe, woe, grief!
And grief girded itself with a bast,
Feet are entangled with bast.

folk song

The personification was widespread in the poetry of different eras and peoples, from folklore lyrics to poetic works of romantic poets, from precision poetry to the work of the Oberiuts.

paraphrase

In stylistics and poetics, periphrase (paraphrase, periphrase; “descriptive expression”, “allegory”, “statement”) is a trope that descriptively expresses one concept with the help of several.

Paraphrase - an indirect reference to an object by not naming it, but describing it (for example, “night luminary” = “moon” or “I love you, Peter's creation!” = “I love you, St. Petersburg!”).

In paraphrases, the names of objects and people are replaced by indications of their characteristics, for example, “writer of these lines” instead of “I” in the author’s speech, “fall into a dream” instead of “fall asleep”, “king of beasts” instead of “lion”, “one-armed bandit” instead of "slot machine". There are logical paraphrases (“the author of Dead Souls”) and figurative paraphrases (“the sun of Russian poetry”).

Often the paraphrase is used to descriptively express "low" or "forbidden" concepts ("unclean" instead of "hell", "get by with a handkerchief" instead of "blow your nose"). In these cases, the paraphrase is also a euphemism. // Literary encyclopedia: Dictionary of literary terms: in 2 volumes - M.; L .: Publishing house L. D. Frenkel, 1925. T. 2. P-Ya. - Stb. 984-986.

4. Khazagerov G. G.Persuasive speech system as homeostasis: oratorics, homiletics, didactics, symbolism// Sociological journal. - 2001. - No. 3.

5. Nikolaev A.I. Lexical means of expression// Nikolaev A.I. Fundamentals of literary criticism: a textbook for students of philological specialties. - Ivanovo: LISTOS, 2011. - S. 121-139.

6. Panov M.I. trails// Pedagogical speech science: Dictionary-reference book / ed. T. A. Ladyzhenskaya, A. K. Mikhalskaya. M.: Flinta; Science, 1998.

7. Toporov V.N. trails// linguistic encyclopedic Dictionary/ Ch. ed. V. N. Yartseva. M.: Soviet Encyclopedia, 1990.

trails

trails

TROPES (Greek tropoi) is a term of ancient stylistics, denoting artistic comprehension and ordering of semantic changes in a word, various shifts in its semantic structure. Semasiology. The definition of T. is one of the most contentious issues already in the ancient theory of style. “A trope,” says Quintilian, “is a change in the proper meaning of a word or verbal turn, in which an enrichment of meaning is obtained. Both among grammarians and among philosophers there is an irresolvable dispute about genders, species, the number of tropes and their systematization.
The main types of T. for most theorists are: metaphor, metonymy and synecdoche with their subspecies, i.e. T., based on the use of the word in a figurative sense; but along with this, a number of phrases are included in the number of phrases, where the main meaning of the word does not shift, but is enriched by revealing new additional meanings (meanings) in it - what are the epithet, comparison, paraphrase, etc. In many cases, already ancient theorists hesitate, where to attribute this or that turnover - to T. or to figures. So, Cicero refers the paraphrase to the figures, Quintilian - to the paths. Leaving aside these disagreements, we can establish the following types of theory described by the theorists of antiquity, the Renaissance, and the Enlightenment:
1. Epithet (Greek epitheton, Latin appositum) - a defining word, mainly when it adds new qualities to the meaning of the word being defined (epitheton ornans - decorating epithet). Wed Pushkin: "ruddy dawn"; Special attention theorists give an epithet with a figurative meaning (cf. Pushkin: “my harsh days”) and an epithet with the opposite meaning - the so-called. an oxymoron (cf. Nekrasov: "wretched luxury").
2. Comparison (Latin comparatio) - revealing the meaning of a word by comparing it with another according to some common ground(tertium comparisonis). Wed Pushkin: "Youth is faster than a bird." The disclosure of the meaning of a word by determining its logical content is called interpretation and refers to figures (see).
3. Periphrase (Greek periphrasis, Latin circumlocutio) - "a method of presentation that describes a simple subject through complex turns." Wed Pushkin has a parodic paraphrase: “Young pet of Thalia and Melpomene, generously gifted by Apollo” (inc. young talented actress). One of the types of paraphrase is euphemism - a replacement by a descriptive turn of a word, for some reason recognized as obscene. Wed in Gogol: "get by with a handkerchief."
In contrast to the T. listed here, which are built on the enrichment of the unchanged basic meaning of the word, the following T. are built on shifts in the basic meaning of the word.
4. Metaphor (Latin translatio) - "the use of a word in a figurative sense."
The classic example given by Cicero is "the murmur of the sea". The confluence of many metaphors forms an allegory and a riddle.
5. Synecdoche (Latin intellectio) - "the case when the whole thing is recognized by a small part or when a part is recognized by the whole." The classic example given by Quintilian is "stern" instead of "ship".
6. Metonymy (Latin denominatio) - "replacement of one name of an object by another, borrowed from related and close objects." Wed Lomonosov: "read Virgil".
7. Antonomasia (Latin pronominatio) - replacement own name to others, "as if from the outside, a borrowed nickname." The classic example given by Quintilian is "destroyer of Carthage" instead of "Scipio".
8. Metalepsis (Latin transumptio) - “a replacement representing, as it were, a transition from one path to another.” Wed in Lomonosov - "ten harvests have passed ...: here, through the harvest, of course, summer, after summer - a whole year."
Such are the T., built on the use of the word in a figurative sense; theorists also note the possibility of the simultaneous use of the word in a figurative and literal sense (the figure of synoikiosis) and the possibility of a confluence of contradictory metaphors (T. catachresis - Latin abusio).
Finally, a number of T. is distinguished, in which not the main meaning of the word changes, but one or another shade of this meaning. These are:
9. Hyperbole - an exaggeration brought to the point of "impossibility". Wed Lomonosov: "running, speedy wind and lightning."
10. Litotes - an understatement expressing, through a negative turnover, the content of a positive turnover (“a lot” in the meaning of “many”).
11. Irony - an expression in words of a meaning opposite to their meaning. Wed Lomonosov's characterization of Catiline by Cicero: “Yes! He is a fearful and meek person ... ".
The theoreticians of the new time consider three theories to be the main ones, built on shifts in meaning - metaphor, metonymy, and synecdoche. A significant part of the theoretical constructions in the style of the XIX-XX centuries. is devoted to the psychological or philosophical substantiation of the selection of these three T. (Bernhardi, Gerber, Wackernagel, R. Meyer, Elster, Bain, Fischer, in Russian - Potebnya, Khartsiev, etc.). So they tried to justify the difference between T. and figures as between more and less perfect forms of sensory perception (Wakernagel) or as between “means of visualization” (Mittel der Veranschaulichung) and “means of mood” (Mittel der Stimmung - T. Fischer). In the same plan, they tried to establish differences between individual T. - for example. they wanted to see in the synecdoche the expression of "direct view" (Anschaung), in metonymy - "reflection" (Reflexion), in the metaphor - "fantasy" (Gerber). The tension and conventionality of all these constructions are obvious. Since, however, linguistic facts are the direct material of observation, a number of theorists of the 19th century refers to linguistic data to substantiate the doctrine of t. and figures; this is how Gerber opposes the stylistic phenomena in the field of the semantic side of the language - to the figures as the stylistic use of the syntactic-grammatical structure of the language; Potebnya and his school insistently point to the connection between stylistic language and the range of semantic phenomena in language (especially at the early stages of its development). However, all these attempts to find the linguistic foundations of stylistic T. do not lead to positive results with an idealistic understanding of language and consciousness; only by taking into account the stages in the development of thinking and language can one find the linguistic foundations of stylistic t. It should further be remembered that the linguistic substantiation of stylistic styles does not by any means replace or eliminate the need for their literary criticism as phenomena of artistic style (as the futurists tried to assert). Evaluation of the same T. and figures as phenomena of artistic style (see) is possible only as a result of a specific literary and historical analysis; otherwise, we will return to those abstract disputes about the absolute value of one or another T., to-rye found among the rhetoricians of antiquity; however, even the best minds of antiquity did not evaluate t.
Stylistics, Semasiology.

Literary encyclopedia. - In 11 tons; M .: publishing house of the Communist Academy, Soviet Encyclopedia, Fiction. Edited by V. M. Friche, A. V. Lunacharsky. 1929-1939 .

trails

(Greek tropos - turn, turn), speech turns, in which the word changes its direct meaning to a figurative one. Types of trails: metaphor- the transfer of characteristics from one object to another, carried out on the basis of the associatively established identity of their individual features (the so-called transfer by similarity); metonymy– transfer of a name from one subject to another on the basis of their objective logical connection (transfer by adjacency); synecdoche as a kind of metonymy - the transfer of a name from an object to an object based on their generic ratio (transfer by quantity); irony in the form of antiphrase or asteism - the transfer of a name from object to object based on their logical opposition (transfer by contrast).
Tropes are common to all languages ​​and are used in everyday speech. In it, they are either deliberately used in the form of idioms - stable phraseological units (for example: drip on the brain or pull yourself together), or arise as a result of a grammatical or syntactical error. In artistic speech, tropes are always used deliberately, they introduce additional meanings, enhance the expressiveness of images, and draw the attention of readers to an important fragment of the text for the author. Tropes as figures of speech can, in turn, be emphasized by stylistic figures. Separate tropes in artistic speech are developing, unfolding over a large space of text, and as a result, an overgrown metaphor turns into symbol or allegory. Besides, certain types tropes are historically associated with certain artistic methods: types of metonymy - with realism(images-types can be considered images-synecdoches), metaphor - with romanticism(in the broad sense of the term). Finally, in artistic and everyday speech within the framework of a phrase or phrase, overlapping tropes can occur: in the idiom he has a trained eye, the word trained is used in a metaphorical sense, and the word eye is used as a synecdoche (singular instead of plural) and as metonymy (instead of the word vision ).

Literature and language. Modern illustrated encyclopedia. - M.: Rosman. Under the editorship of prof. Gorkina A.P. 2006 .

See what "Trails" are in other dictionaries:

TRAILS (from Greek τροπή, Latin tropus turn, figure of speech). 1. In poetics, this is the ambiguous use of words (allegorical and literal), which are related to each other according to the principle of contiguity (metonymy, synecdoche), similarity (metaphor), ... ... Philosophical Encyclopedia

- (from the Greek tropos turn of speech), ..1) in stylistics and poetics, the use of a word in a figurative sense, in which there is a shift in the semantics of the word from its direct meaning to a figurative one. On the ratio of the direct and figurative meanings of the word ... ... Big Encyclopedic Dictionary

Modern Encyclopedia

- (Greek) Rhetorical figures allegory, i.e., words used in a figurative, allegorical sense. Dictionary of foreign words included in the Russian language. Chudinov A.N., 1910 ... Dictionary of foreign words of the Russian language

TRAILS, see Stylistics. Lermontov Encyclopedia / USSR Academy of Sciences. In t rus. lit. (Pushkin. House); Scientific ed. council of the publishing house of the Sov. Encycl. ; Ch. ed. Manuilov V. A., Editorial staff: Andronikov I. L., Bazanov V. G., Bushmin A. S., Vatsuro V. E., Zhdanov V. V., ... ... Lermontov Encyclopedia

trails- (from the Greek tropos turn, turn of speech), 1) in stylistics and poetics, the use of a word in a figurative sense, in which there is a shift in the semantics of the word from its direct meaning to a figurative one. On the ratio of the direct and figurative meanings of the word ... Illustrated Encyclopedic Dictionary

TROPE

Trope is a word or expression used figuratively to create artistic image and achieve greater expressiveness. Pathways include techniques such as epithet, comparison, personification, metaphor, metonymy, sometimes referred to as hyperbolas and litotes. No work of art is complete without tropes. The artistic word is polysemantic; the writer creates images, playing with the meanings and combinations of words, using the environment of the word in the text and its sound - all this makes up the artistic possibilities of the word, which is the only tool of the writer or poet.
Note! When creating a trail, the word is always used in a figurative sense.

Consider the different types of trails:

EPITHET(Greek Epitheton, attached) - this is one of the tropes, which is an artistic, figurative definition. An epithet can be:
adjectives: gentle face (S. Yesenin); these poor villages, this meager nature ... (F. Tyutchev); transparent maiden (A. Blok);
participles: edge abandoned(S. Yesenin); frantic dragon (A. Blok); takeoff radiant(M. Tsvetaeva);
nouns, sometimes together with their surrounding context: Here he is, leader without squad(M. Tsvetaeva); My youth! My dove is swarthy!(M. Tsvetaeva).

Each epithet reflects the uniqueness of the author's perception of the world, therefore it necessarily expresses some kind of assessment and has a subjective meaning: a wooden shelf is not an epithet, so there is no artistic definition, a wooden face is an epithet that expresses the impression of the interlocutor speaking about the facial expression, that is, creating an image.
There are stable (permanent) folklore epithets: remote burly kind well done, clear the sun, as well as tautological, that is, epithets-repetitions that have the same root with the word being defined: Oh you, grief is bitter, boredom is boring, mortal! (A. Blok).

AT work of art An epithet can perform various functions:

• characterize the subject: shining eyes, eyes diamonds;
• create atmosphere, mood: gloomy morning;
• convey the attitude of the author (narrator, lyrical hero) to the subject being characterized: "Where will our prankster"(A. Pushkin);
• combine all previous functions in equal proportions (in most cases, the use of the epithet).

Note! All color terms in a literary text are epithets.

COMPARISON- this is an artistic technique (tropes), in which an image is created by comparing one object with another. Comparison differs from other artistic comparisons, for example, similes, in that it always has a strict formal feature: a comparative construction or a turnover with comparative conjunctions. as, as if, as if, exactly, as if and the like. Type expressions he looked like... cannot be considered a comparison as a trope.

Comparison examples:

Comparison also plays certain roles in the text: sometimes authors use the so-called extended comparison, revealing various signs of a phenomenon or conveying one's attitude to several phenomena. Often the work is entirely based on comparison, as, for example, V. Bryusov's poem "Sonnet to Form":

PERSONALIZATION- an artistic technique (tropes), in which an inanimate object, phenomenon or concept is given human properties (do not confuse, it is human!). Personification can be used narrowly, in one line, in a small fragment, but it can be a technique on which the whole work is built (“You are my abandoned land” by S. Yesenin, “Mom and the evening killed by the Germans”, “Violin and a little nervously” by V. Mayakovsky and others). Personification is considered one of the types of metaphor (see below).

Impersonation task- correlate the depicted object with a person, make it closer to the reader, figuratively comprehend the inner essence of the object, hidden from everyday life. Personification is one of the oldest figurative means of art.

HYPERBOLA(Greek Hyperbole, exaggeration) is a technique in which an image is created through artistic exaggeration. Hyperbole is not always included in the set of tropes, but by the nature of the use of the word in a figurative sense to create an image, hyperbole is very close to tropes. A technique opposite to hyperbole in content is LITOTES(Greek Litotes, simplicity) is an artistic understatement.

Hyperbole allows the author to show the reader in exaggerated form the most character traits depicted subject. Often, hyperbole and litotes are used by the author in an ironic vein, revealing not just characteristic, but negative, from the author's point of view, sides of the subject.

METAPHOR(Greek Metaphora, transfer) - a type of so-called complex trope, speech turnover, in which the properties of one phenomenon (object, concept) are transferred to another. Metaphor contains a hidden comparison, a figurative likening of phenomena using the figurative meaning of words, what the object is compared with is only implied by the author. No wonder Aristotle said that "to compose good metaphors means to notice similarities."

Metaphor examples:

METONYMY(Greek Metonomadzo, rename) - type of trail: a figurative designation of an object according to one of its signs.

Examples of metonymy:

When studying the topic "Means of artistic expression" and completing tasks, pay special attention to the definitions of the above concepts. You must not only understand their meaning, but also know the terminology by heart. This will protect you from practical mistakes: knowing for sure that the comparison technique has strict formal features (see theory on topic 1), you will not confuse this technique with a number of other artistic techniques that are also based on a comparison of several objects, but are not a comparison .

Please note that you must start your answer either with the suggested words (by rewriting them), or with your own version of the beginning of the full answer. This applies to all such assignments.

• Literary criticism: Reference materials. - M., 1988.
• Polyakov M. Rhetoric and Literature. Theoretical aspects. - In the book: Questions of Poetics and Artistic Semantics. - M.: Sov. writer, 1978.
• Dictionary literary terms. - M., 1974.