In the hands of the advanced observer of the Italian army, the Elbit PLDRII reconnaissance and target designation device, which is in service with many customers, including the Marine Corps, where it has the designation AN / PEQ-17

Looking for a purpose

In order to generate target coordinates, the data acquisition system must first know its own position. From it, she can determine the range to the target and the angle of the latter relative to the true pole. A surveillance system (preferably day and night), an accurate positioning system, a laser rangefinder, a digital magnetic compass are typical components of such a device. It is also a good idea in such a system to have a tracking device capable of identifying a coded laser beam to confirm the target to the pilot, which, as a result, increases safety and reduces communication exchange. Pointers, on the other hand, are not powerful enough to aim weapons, but allow you to mark the target for ground or air (airborne) designators, which, ultimately, point semi-active laser head homing ammunition to the target. Finally, artillery position radars allow you to accurately determine the position of enemy artillery, even if (and most often it happens) they are not in line of sight. As said, only manual systems will be considered in this review.

In order to understand what the military wants to have in their hands, let's look at the requirements published by the US Army in 2014 for their LTLM (Laser Target Location Module) II laser reconnaissance and target designation device, which should eventually replace the armed with the previous version of the LTLM. The Army expects a device weighing 1.8 kg (ultimately 1.6 kg), although the entire system, including the device itself, cables, tripod and lens cleaning kit, can raise the bar to 4.8 kg at best to 3.85 kg. By comparison, the current LTLM module has a base weight of 2.5 kg and a total weight of 5.4 kg. Target location error threshold is defined as 45 meters at 5 kilometers (same as LTLM), practical circular error probable (CEP) of 10 meters at 10 kilometers. For daytime operations, the LTLM II will have a minimum magnification of x7 optics, a minimum field of view of 6°x3.5°, an eyepiece scale in 10 mil increments, and a daytime color camera. It will provide streaming video and a wide field of view of 6°x4.5°, guaranteeing a recognition rate of 70% at 3.1 km and identification at 1.9 km in clear weather. The narrow field of view should be no more than 3°x2.25°, preferably 2.5°x1.87°, with appropriate recognition ranges of 4.2 or 5 km and identification ranges of 2.6 or 3.2 km. The thermal imaging channel will have the same target fields of view with a probability of 70% recognition at 0.9 and 2 km and identification at 0.45 and 1 km. Target data will be stored in the UTM/UPS coordinate unit, and data and images will be transmitted via RS-232 or USB 2.0 connectors. Power will be provided by L91 AA lithium batteries. The minimum ability to establish communication should be provided by a lightweight high-precision PLGR (Precision Lightweight GPS Receiver) GPS receiver and an advanced military DAGR (Defense Advanced GPS Receiver) GPS receiver, as well as developed GPS systems. However, the Army would prefer a system that could also interface with the Pocket Sized Forward Entry Device, Forward Observer Software/System, Force XXI Battle Command, Brigade-and-Below, and the Network Soldier System. Net Warrior.

BAE Systems offers two reconnaissance and target designation devices. The UTB X-LRF is an evolution of the UTB X device, to which a Class 1 laser rangefinder has been added with a range of 5.2 km. The device is based on an uncooled thermal imaging matrix of 640x480 pixels with a pitch of 17 microns, it can have optics with a focal length of 40, 75 and 120 mm with the corresponding magnification x2.1, x3.7 and x6.6, diagonal fields of view 19°, 10.5 ° and 6.5° and x2 electronic zoom. According to BAE Systems, the ranges of positive (80% probability) detection of a NATO standard target with an area of ​​0.75 m2 are 1010, 2220 and 2660 meters, respectively. The UTB X-LRF is equipped with a GPS system with an accuracy of 2.5 meters and a digital magnetic compass. It also includes a Class 3B laser pointer in the visible and infrared spectra. The instrument can store up to one hundred images in uncompressed BMP format. Power is provided by four L91 lithium batteries providing five hours of operation, although the instrument can be connected to an external power source via the USB port. The UTB X-LRF is 206mm long, 140mm wide and 74mm high, weighing 1.38kg without batteries.

In the US Army, BAE Systems' Trigr is known as the Laser Target Locator Module, it includes an uncooled thermal imaging array and weighs less than 2.5 kg.

The UTB X-LRF device is a further development of the UTB X, it has added a laser rangefinder, which made it possible to turn the device into a full-fledged reconnaissance, surveillance and target designation system

Another product from BAE Systems is the Trigr (Target Reconnaissance Infrared GeoLocating Rangefinder) laser reconnaissance and target designation device, developed in collaboration with Vectronix. BAE Systems provides the instrument with an uncooled thermal imager and a state-of-the-art selective availability GPS receiver, while Vectronix provides x7 magnification optics, a fiber optic laser rangefinder with a range of 5 km and a digital magnetic compass. According to the company, the Trigr device guarantees a CEP of 45 meters at a distance of 5 km. The recognition range during the day is 4.2 km or more than 900 meters at night. The device weighs less than 2.5 kg, two sets guarantee round-the-clock operation. The entire system with tripod, batteries and cables weighs 5.5 kg. In the US Army, the device received the designation Laser Target Locator Module; in 2009, she was signed to a five-year, unspecified contract, plus two more in August 2012 and January 2013, worth $23.5 million and $7 million, respectively.

Northrop Grumman's Mark VII handheld laser reconnaissance, surveillance and target designation device has been replaced by an improved Mark VIIE device. This model received a thermal imaging channel instead of the image brightness enhancement channel of the previous model. The uncooled sensor significantly improves visibility at night and in difficult conditions; it features a field of view of 11.1°x8.3°. The daytime channel is based on forward-looking optics with an x8.2 magnification and a field of view of 7°x5°. The digital magnetic compass is ±8 mil accurate, the electronic clinometer is ±4 mil accurate, and positioning is provided by a built-in GPS/SAASM selective anti-jamming module. Laser rangefinder Nd-Yag (laser on yttrium-aluminum garnet with neodymium) with optical parametric generation provides maximum range 20 km with an accuracy of ±3 meters. The Mark VIIE weighs 2.5 kg with nine commercial CR123 cells and is equipped with an RS-232/422 data interface.

The newest product in Northrop Grumman's portfolio is the HHPTD (Hand Held Precision Targeting Device), which weighs less than 2.26 kg. Compared to its predecessors, it has a daytime color channel, as well as a non-magnetic celestial navigation module, which significantly improves the accuracy to the level required by modern GPS-guided munitions. A $9.2 million contract to develop the device was awarded in January 2013 in collaboration with Flir, General Dynamics and Wilcox. In October 2014, the device was tested at the White Sands missile range.

The Hand Held Precision Targeting Device is one of Northrop Grumman's latest developments; its comprehensive tests were carried out at the end of 2014

The main channel of the Flir Recon B2 family is a cooled thermal imaging channel. Device B2-FO with an additional daytime channel in the hands of an Italian commando (pictured)

Flir has several handheld targeting devices in its portfolio and works with other companies to provide night vision devices for such systems. The Recon B2 features a main thermal imaging channel operating in the mid-IR range. The 640x480 cooled indium antimonide sensor provides a 10°x8° wide field of view, a 2.5°x1.8° narrow field of view, and x4 continuous electronic zoom. The thermal imaging channel is equipped with autofocus, automatic brightness gain control and digital data enhancement. The auxiliary channel can be equipped with either a day sensor (model B2-FO) or a far infrared channel (model B2-DC). The first is based on a color 1/4" color CCD camera with a 794x494 matrix with x4 continuous digital zoom and two same fields of view as the previous model. The auxiliary thermal imaging channel is based on a 640x480 vanadium oxide microbolometer and provides one 18 magnification x4.The B2 has a GPS C/A code (Coarse Acquisition code) module (however, a military standard GPS module can be built in to improve accuracy), a digital magnetic compass and a laser range finder with a range of 20 km and an 852nm Class 3B laser pointer.The B2 can store up to 1000 jpeg images that can be uploaded via USB or RS-232/422, NTSC/PAL and HDMI are also available for video recording. The instrument weighs less than 4 kg, including six D-batteries for four hours of continuous operation or more than five hours in an energy-saving mode. The Recon B2 can be equipped with a remote control kit that includes a tripod, pan/tilt head, power and communications box, and control box.

Flir offers a lighter version of the Recon V surveillance and targeting device, which includes a thermal sensor, a range finder and other typical sensors packed in a 1.8 kg case.

The lighter model Recon B9-FO features an uncooled thermal imaging channel with a 9.3°x7° field of view and x4 digital zoom. The color camera has x10 continuous zoom and x4 digital zoom, while the GPS receiver, digital compass and laser pointer features are the same as the B2. The main difference lies in the rangefinder, which has a maximum range of 3 km. The B9-FO is designed for shorter range operation; it also weighs significantly less than the B2, less than 2.5 kg with two D batteries that provide five hours of continuous use.

With no day channel, the Recon V weighs even less, at just 1.8 kg with batteries that provide six hours of hot-swappable operation. Its 640x480 indium antimonide cooled matrix operates in the mid-IR region of the spectrum, it has optics with x10 magnification (wide field of view 20°x15°). The rangefinder device is designed for a range of 10 km, while the gyroscope based on microelectromechanical systems provides image stabilization.

The French company Sagem offers three binocular solutions for day/night target detection. They all feature the same color daylight channel with a 3°x2.25° field of view, an eye-safe 10 km laser rangefinder, a digital magnetic compass with 360° azimuth and ±40° elevation angles, and a GPS C/S module with accuracy up to three meters (the device can be connected to an external GPS module). The main difference between the devices lies in the thermal imaging channel.

Topping the list is the Jim UC multifunctional binoculars, which have an uncooled 640x480 sensor with identical night and daytime fields of view, while the wide field of view is 8.6°x6.45°. Jim UC is equipped with digital zoom, image stabilization, built-in photo and video recording; optional image fusion function between day and thermal imaging channels. It also includes an eye-safe 0.8µm laser pointer plus analog and digital ports. Without batteries, the binoculars weigh 2.3 kg. The rechargeable battery provides more than five hours of continuous operation.

The multifunctional binoculars Jim Long Range of the French company Sagem were supplied to the French infantry as part of the Felin combat equipment; in the photo, the binoculars are mounted on the Sterna target designation device from Vectronix

Next comes the more advanced Jim LR multifunctional binoculars, from which, by the way, the UC device “budded”. It is in service with the French army, being part of the combat equipment of the French soldier Felin. Jim LR features a thermal imaging channel with a 320x240 pixel sensor operating in the 3-5 µm range; the narrow field of view is the same as the UC model, and the wide field of view is 9°x6.75°. A more powerful laser pointer that increases the range from 300 to 2500 meters is available as an option. The cooling system naturally increases the mass of Jim LR devices to 2.8 kg without batteries. However, the cooled thermal imaging module significantly improves performance, the ranges of detection, recognition and identification of a person are respectively 3/1/0.5 km for the UC model and 7/2.5/1.2 km for the LR model.

The range is completed by Jim HR multifunctional binoculars with even higher performance, provided by a high-resolution VGA 640x480 matrix.

Vectronix's Sagem division offers two surveillance platforms that, when connected to systems from Vectronix and/or Sagem, form extremely accurate, modular targeting tools.

The digital magnetic compass included with the GonioLight Digital Observation Station is accurate to 5 mils (0.28°). Connecting a true (geographic) pole gyroscope improves accuracy to 1 mil (0.06°). A 4.4 kg gyroscope is installed between the station itself and the tripod, as a result, the total weight of the GonioLight, gyroscope and tripod tends to 7 kg. Without a gyroscope, such accuracy can be achieved through the use of built-in topographic referencing procedures using known landmarks or celestial bodies. The system has a built-in GPS module and an access channel to an external GPS module. The GonioLight station is equipped with an illuminated screen and has interfaces for computers, communications equipment and other external devices. In the event of a malfunction, the system has auxiliary scales to determine the direction and vertical angle. The system allows you to accept a variety of day or night surveillance devices and rangefinders, such as the Vector family of rangefinders or the Sagem Jim binoculars described above. Special mounts in the upper part of the GonioLight station also allow the installation of two optoelectronic subsystems. The total weight varies from 9.8 kg in the GLV configuration, which includes the GonioLight plus the Vector rangefinder, to 18.1 kg in the GL G-TI configuration, which includes the GonioLight, Vector, Jim-LR and gyroscope. The GonioLight observation station was developed in the early 2000s and since then more than 2000 of these systems have been delivered to many countries. This station was also used in combat operations in Iraq and Afghanistan.

Vectronix's experience helped them develop the ultra-light, non-magnetic Sterna target designation system. If GonioLite is designed for ranges over 10 km, then Sterna for ranges of 4-6 km. Together with the tripod, the system weighs about 2.5 kg, and the accuracy is less than 1 mil (0.06°) at any latitude using known landmarks. This allows you to get a target location error of less than four meters at a distance of 1.5 km. In the event that landmarks are not available, the Sterna system is equipped with a hemispherical resonant gyroscope jointly developed by Sagem and Vectronix, which provides an accuracy of 2 mils (0.11°) in determining true north up to a latitude of 60°. Set-up and orientation time is less than 150 seconds, and a rough alignment of ±5° is required. The Sterna is powered by four CR123A cells providing 50 orientations and 500 measurements. Like GonlioLight, the Sterna system can accept various types of optoelectronic systems. For example, Vectronix's portfolio includes the lightest instrument at less than 3 kg, the PLRF25C, and the slightly heavier (less than 4 kg) Moskito. For more complex tasks, Vector or Jim devices can be added, but the weight increases to 6 kg. The Sterna system has a special attachment point for trunnion mounting vehicle, from which it can be quickly removed for dismounted operations. To evaluate these systems in large quantities were supplied to the troops. The U.S. Army ordered Vectronix handheld systems and Sterna systems as part of the Handheld High Precision Targeting Device Requirements issued in July 2012. Vectronix is ​​confident about the continued growth in sales of the Sterna system in 2015.

In June 2014, Vectronix showed the Moskito TI surveillance and target designation device with three channels: a daytime optical with x6 magnification, an optical (CMOS technology) with brightness enhancement (both with a 6.25 ° field of view) and an uncooled thermal imaging with a 12 ° field of view. The device also includes a 10 km rangefinder with an accuracy of ±2 meters and a digital compass with an accuracy of ±10 mils (±0.6°) in azimuth and ±3 mils (±0.2°) in elevation. The GPS module is optional, although there is a connector for external civilian and military GPS receivers, as well as Galileo or GLONASS modules. It is possible to connect a laser pointer. The Moskito TI device has RS-232, USB 2.0 and Ethernet interfaces, Bluetooth wireless communication is optional. It is powered by three batteries or CR123A batteries, providing over six hours of uninterrupted operation. And finally, all the above systems are packed in a 130x170x80 mm device weighing less than 1.3 kg. This new product is a further development of the Moskito model, which, with a mass of 1.2 kg, has a daytime channel and a channel with brightness enhancement, a laser rangefinder with a range of 10 km, a digital compass; optional integration of civil standard GPS or connection to an external GPS receiver is possible.

Thales offers a complete range of reconnaissance, surveillance and target designation systems. The 3.4 kg Sophie UF system has an optical day channel with x6 magnification and a 7° field of view. The range of the laser rangefinder reaches 20 km, the Sophie UF can be equipped with a GPS P (Y) code (encrypted code for the exact location of an object) or C / A code (coarse location code for objects) receiver, which can be connected to an external DAGR / PLGR receiver. A magnetoresistive digital compass with 0.5° azimuth accuracy and a gravity sensor inclinometer with 0.1° accuracy complete the sensor package. The device is powered by AA cells providing 8 hours of operation. The system can operate in the modes of correcting the fall of shells and reporting data about the target; for exporting data and images, it is equipped with RS232/422 connectors. The Sophie UF system is also in service with the British Army under the designation SSARF (Surveillance System and Range Finder).

Moving from simple to complex, let's focus on the Sophie MF device. It includes a cooled 8-12 µm thermal imager with wide 8°x6° and narrow 3.2°x2.4° fields of view and x2 digital zoom. As an option there is a color day channel with a field of view of 3.7°x2.8° along with a laser pointer with a wavelength of 839 nm. The Sophie MF system also includes a 10 km laser rangefinder, a built-in GPS receiver, a connector for connecting to an external GPS receiver, and a magnetic compass with an accuracy of 0.5° in azimuth and 0.2° in elevation. Sophie MF weighs 3.5 kg and runs on a set of batteries for more than four hours.

The Sophie XF is almost identical to the MF model, the main difference lies in the thermal imaging sensor, which operates in the mid-wave (3-5 μm) IR region of the spectrum and has a wide 15°x11.2° and narrow 2.5°x1.9° field of view, optical magnification x6 and electronic magnification x2. Analog and HDMI outputs are available for video data output, because Sophie XF is capable of storing up to 1000 photos or up to 2 GB of video. There are also RS 422 and USB ports. The XF model is the same size and weight as the MF model, although the battery pack lasts just over six or seven hours.

The British company Instro Precision, specializing in goniometers and panoramic heads, has developed a modular reconnaissance and target designation system MG-TAS (Modular Gyro Target Acquisition System), based on a gyroscope, which allows high-precision determination of the true pole. The accuracy is less than 1 mil (not affected by magnetic interference) and the digital goniometer offers 9 mil accuracy depending on the magnetic field. The system also includes a lightweight tripod and a rugged handheld computer with a full set of targeting tools for calculating target data. The interface allows you to install one or two target designation sensors.

Vectronix has developed a light non-magnetic Sterna reconnaissance and target designation system with a range of 4 to 6 kilometers (installed on a Sagem Jim-LR in the photo)

The latest addition to the family of targeting devices is the Vectronix Moskito 77 model, which has two daylight and one thermal imaging channel.

The Sophie XF device from Thales allows you to determine the coordinates of the target, and for night vision there is a sensor operating in the mid-IR region of the spectrum

The Airbus DS Nestor system with a cooled thermal imaging matrix and a mass of 4.5 kg was developed for the German mountain infantry troops. It is in service with several armies

Airbus DS Optronics offers two Nestor and TLS-40 reconnaissance, surveillance and target designation devices, both manufactured in South Africa. The Nestor device, whose production began in 2004-2005, was originally developed for German mountain rifle units. The biocular system weighing 4.5 kg includes a day channel with x7 magnification and a 6.5° field of view with an increment of reticle filaments of 5 mils, as well as a thermal imaging channel based on a cooled matrix 640x512 pixels in size with two fields of view, narrow 2.8°x2.3° and wide (11.4°x9.1°). The distance to the target is measured by a Class 1M laser range finder with a range of 20 km and an accuracy of ± 5 meters and adjustable strobing (pulse repetition frequency) in range. The direction and elevation of the target is provided by a digital magnetic compass with an accuracy of ±1° in azimuth and ±0.5° in elevation, while the measurable elevation angle is +45°. The Nestor has a built-in 12-channel GPS L1 C/A receiver (coarse definition), and external GPS modules can also be connected. There is a CCIR-PAL video output. The device is powered by lithium-ion batteries, but it is possible to connect to an external DC power source at 10-32 Volts. The cooled thermal imager increases the mass of the system, but at the same time increases the night vision capabilities. The system is in service with several European armies, including the Bundeswehr, several European border forces and unnamed buyers from the Middle and Far East. The company expects several large contracts for hundreds of systems in 2015, but new customers are not named there.

Using the experience gained from building the Nestor system, Airbus DS Optronics developed the lighter Opus-H system with an uncooled thermal imaging channel. Deliveries began in 2007. It has the same daylight channel, while the 640x480 microbolmetric array provides an 8.1°x6.1° field of view and the ability to save images in jpg format. Other components have been left unchanged, including the monopulse laser rangefinder, which not only extends measurement range without the need for tripod stabilization, but also detects and displays up to three targets at any range. The USB 2.0, RS232 and RS422 serial connectors are also retained from the previous model. Eight AA elements provide power supply. The Opus-H weighs about one kg less than the Nestor and is also smaller at 300x215x110mm compared to 360x250x155mm. Buyers of the Opus-H system from the military and paramilitary structures were not disclosed.

Airbus DS Optronics Opus-H system

Due to the growing need for lightweight and low-cost targeting systems, Airbus DS Optronics (Pty) has developed a series of TLS 40 devices that weigh less than 2 kg with batteries. Three models are available: TLS 40 with daylight only, TLS 40i with image enhancement, and TLS 40IR with uncooled thermal imaging sensor. Their laser rangefinder and GPS are the same as the Nestor. The digital magnetic compass operates over a range of ±45° vertical angles, ±30° cross-slope angles, and provides ±10 mil azimuth and ±4 mil elevation accuracy. Common with the previous two models, the biocular daytime optical channel with the same reticle as in the Nestor device has an x7 magnification and a field of view of 7°. The TLS 40i image enhancement variant has a monocular channel based on the Photonis XR5 tube with x7 magnification and a 6° field of view. The TLS 40 and TLS 40i models have the same physical characteristics, their dimensions are 187x173x91 mm. With the same weight as the other two models, the TLS 40IR is larger in size, 215x173x91 mm. It has a monocular day channel with the same magnification and a slightly narrower field of view of 6°. The 640x312 microbolometer array provides a 10.4°x8.3° field of view with x2 digital zoom. The image is displayed on a black and white OLED display. All TLS 40 models can optionally be equipped with a 0.89°x0.75° field of view day camera for capturing images in jpg format and a voice recorder for recording voice comments in WAV format at 10 seconds per image. All three models are powered by three CR123 batteries or from an external 6-15 Volt power supply, have USB 1.0, RS232, RS422 and RS485 serial connectors, PAL and NTSC video outputs, and can also be equipped with an external GPS receiver. The TLS 40 series has already entered service with unnamed customers, including African ones.

Nyxus Bird Gyro differs from the previous Nyxus Bird model with a true pole gyroscope, which significantly improves the accuracy of determining the position of the target at long distances

The German company Jenoptik has developed the Nyxus Bird day-night reconnaissance, surveillance and target designation system, which is available in medium and long-range versions. The difference lies in the thermal imaging channel, which in the medium-range variant is equipped with a lens with a field of view of 11°x8°. The ranges of detection, recognition and identification of a standard NATO target are 5, 2 and 1 km, respectively. The long range variant with 7°x5° field of view optics provides longer ranges of 7, 2.8 and 1.4 km respectively. The matrix size for both options is 640x480 pixels. The daytime channel of the two variants has a field of view of 6.75° and a magnification of x7. The Class 1 laser rangefinder has a typical range of 3.5 km, the digital magnetic compass provides an accuracy of 0.5° in azimuth in the 360° sector and in elevation of 0.2° in the 65° sector. The Nyxus Bird features multiple measurement modes and can store up to 2000 infrared images. With built-in GPS, however, it can be connected to a PLGR/DAGR system to further improve accuracy. For transferring photos and videos, there is a USB 2.0 connector, wireless Bluetooth is optional. With a 3 Volt lithium battery, the device weighs 1.6 kg, without an eyecup, the length is 180 mm, the width is 150 mm and the height is 70 mm. The Nyxus Bird is part of the German Army's IdZ-ES modernization program. The addition of a Micro Pointer tactical computer with an integrated geographic information system significantly increases the ability to localize targets. The Micro Pointer is powered by internal and external power supplies, has RS232, RS422, RS485 and USB connectors and an optional Ethernet connector. This small computer (191x85x81 mm) weighs only 0.8 kg. Another optional system is the non-magnetic true-pole gyroscope, which provides very accurate heading and precise target position at all ultra-long distances. A gyro head with the same connectors as the Micro Pointer can be connected to an external PLGR/DAGR GPS system. Four CR123A elements provide 50 orientations and 500 measurements. The head weighs 2.9 kg, and the whole system with a tripod 4.5 kg.

The Finnish company Millog has developed a Lisa manual target designation system, which includes an uncooled thermal imager and an optical channel with detection, recognition and vehicle identification ranges of 4.8 km, 1.35 km and 1 km, respectively. The system weighs 2.4 kg with batteries that provide a runtime of 10 hours. After receiving the contract in May 2014, the system began to enter service with the Finnish army.

Developed several years ago for the Soldato Futuro Italian Army soldier modernization program by Selex-ES, the Linx multifunctional handheld day/night reconnaissance and targeting device has been improved and now has an uncooled 640x480 matrix. The thermal imaging channel has a field of view of 10°x7.5° with optical magnification x2.8 and electronic magnification x2 and x4. The day channel is a color camera with two magnifications (x3.65 and x11.75 with corresponding fields of view 8.6°x6.5° and 2.7°x2.2°). The programmable electronic reticle is built into the color VGA display. Range measurement is possible up to 3 km, location is determined using the built-in GPS receiver, while a digital magnetic compass provides bearing information. Images are exported via USB. Further refinement of the Linx instrument is expected during 2015 with the introduction of miniature cooled sensors and new features.

In Israel, the military is seeking to increase its ability to fire cooperation. To this end, each battalion will be assigned an air strike coordination and ground fire support group. The battalion is currently assigned one artillery liaison officer. The national industry is already working to provide tools for this task.

The device Lisa of the Finnish company Millog is equipped with uncooled thermal imaging and daylight channels; with a mass of only 2.4 kg, it has a detection range of just under 5 km

The Coral-CR device with a cooled thermal imaging channel is part of the line of target designation systems of the Israeli company Elbit

Elbit Systems is very active in both Israel and the United States. Its Coral-CR surveillance and reconnaissance device has a 640x512 cooled medium-wavelength indium antimonide detector with optical fields of view from 2.5°x2.0° to 12.5°x10° and x4 digital magnification. The black-and-white CCD camera with fields of view from 2.5°x1.9° to 10°x7.5° operates in the visible and near-IR spectral region. Images are displayed on a high-resolution color OLED display through adjustable binocular optics. An eye-safe Class 1 laser rangefinder, built-in GPS, and a digital magnetic compass with 0.7° accuracy in azimuth and elevation complete the sensor suite. Target coordinates are calculated in real time and can be transmitted to external devices, the device can store up to 40 images. CCIR or RS170 video outputs are available. The Coral-CR is 281mm long, 248mm wide, 95mm high, and weighs 3.4kg including the rechargeable ELI-2800E battery. The device is in service with many NATO countries (in America under the designation Emerald-Nav).

The uncooled Mars thermal imager is lighter and cheaper, based on a 384x288 vanadium oxide detector. In addition to the thermal imaging channel with two fields of view 6°x4.5° and 18°x13.5°, it has a built-in color day camera with fields of view 3°x2.5° and 12°x10°, a laser rangefinder, a GPS receiver and a magnetic compass. The Mars instrument is 200 mm long, 180 mm wide and 90 mm high, and weighs only 2 kg with battery.

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Quantum rangefinders.

4.1 The principle of operation of quantum rangefinders.
The principle of operation of quantum rangefinders is based on measuring the time of passage of a light pulse (signal) to the target and back.

Determination of polar coordinates of points;

Maintenance of zeroing targets (creating benchmarks);

Study of the area.

Rice. 13. DAK-2M in combat position.

1- transceiver; 2- angle measuring platform (UIP); 3- tripod; 4- cable;

5- battery 21NKBN-3.5.

4.2.2. Basic performance characteristics DAK-2M

№№	Characteristic name	Indicators
1	2	3
1	Range and measurements, M: Minimum; Maximum; Up to targets with angular dimensions ≥2′	8000
2	Maximum measurement error, m, no more	10
3	Working mode: Number of range measurements in a series; Measurement frequency; Break between series of measurements, min; Time of readiness for distance measurement after power-on, sec., no more; Time spent in readiness mode for range measurement after pressing the START button, min., no more.	1 measurement in 5-7 seconds 30 1
4	Number of measurements (pulses 0 without recharging the battery, not less than	300
5	Pointing angle range:	± 4-50
6	Angle measurement accuracy, d.c.	±0-01
7	Optical characteristics: Increase, times; Field of view, deg.; Periscopicity, mm.	6
8	Food: Voltage of standard battery 21NKBN-3.5, v; Voltage of non-standard batteries, V; Voltage of the on-board network, V, (with the inclusion of a battery with a voltage of 22-29 V in the buffer. In this case, voltage fluctuations and ripple should not exceed ± 0.9 V).	22-29
9	Rangefinder weight: In combat position without stowage box and spare battery, kg; In the stowed position (set weight), kg
10	Calculation, pers.	2

4.2.3. Set (composition) DAK-2M(Fig. 13)

1. 
   Transceiver.
2. 
   Angle measuring platform (UIP).
3. 
   Tripod.
4. 
   Cable.
5. 
   Rechargeable battery 21NKBN-3.5.
6. 
   Single set of spare parts.
7. 
   Stacking box.
8. 
   A set of technical documentation (form, TO and IE).

1. 
   The device of the components of the DAK-2M.

1. 
   Transceiver- designed for conducting optical (visual) reconnaissance, measuring vertical angles, generating a light probing pulse, receiving and registering probing and reflected from local objects (targets) light pulses, converting them into voltage pulses, generating pulses to start and stop the time interval meter ( IVI).

The transceiver consists of a body and a head. Eyecups are installed on the front side of the transceiver. To protect the binocular from mechanical damage, there are brackets.
a) The main blocks and nodes of the transceiver are:

1. 
   optical quantum generator (OQG);
2. 
   photodetector device (FPU);
3. 
   amplifier FPU (UFPU);
4. 
   launch block;
5. 
   time interval meter (IVI);
6. 
   direct current converter (DCC);
7. 
   ignition unit (BP);
8. 
   direct current converter (PPN);
9. 
   control unit (CU);
10. 
    block of capacitors (BC);
11. 
    arrester;
12. 
    head;
13. 
    binocular;
14. 
    mechanism for counting vertical angles.

WGC designed to form a powerful narrowly directed radiation pulse. The physical basis of the laser action is the amplification of light by stimulated emission. To do this, the laser uses an active element and an optical pumping system.

FPU is designed to receive pulses reflected from the target (reflected light pulses), their processing and amplification. To amplify them, the FPU has a preliminary photodetector amplifier (UPFPU).

UFPU is designed to amplify and process pulses coming from the UPFPU, as well as to generate stopping pulses for IVI.

BZ is designed to generate the trigger pulses of the TFI and FPU and delay the trigger pulse of the TFI relative to the laser radiation pulse for the time required for the stopping pulses to pass through the UPFPU and FPU.

IVI is designed to measure the time interval between the fronts of the triggering and one of the three stopping pulses. Converting it into a numerical value of the range in meters and indicating the range to the target, as well as indicating the number of targets in the radiation range.

TTX IVI:

Range of measured ranges - 30 - 97500 m;

Resolution according to D - not worse than 3 m;

The minimum value of the measured range can be set:

1050 m ± 75 m

2025 m ± 75 m

3000m±75m

IVI measures the range to one of three targets within the range of measured ranges at the choice of operators.

PPT is intended for a block of pump capacitors and storage capacitors of the power supply unit, as well as for issuing a stabilized supply voltage to the control unit.

BP is designed to form a high-voltage pulse that ionizes the discharge gap of a pulsed pump lamp.

PPN is designed to output a stabilized supply voltage to the UPFPU, UFPU, BZ and stabilize the rotational speed of the electric motor of the opto-mechanical shutter.

BOO is designed to control the operation of units and units of the range finder in a given sequence and control the voltage level of the power source.

BC designed to store charge.

Discharger designed to remove the charge from the capacitors by shorting them to the body of the transceiver.

Head designed to accommodate a sighting mirror. At the top of the head there is a slot for mounting a sighting pole. A lens hood is attached to protect the head glass.

Binocular is a part of the reticle and is designed to observe the terrain, aim at the target, as well as to read the indications of the range indicators, the target counter, indicate the readiness of the rangefinder to measure the range and the state of the battery.

Vertical angle reference mechanism is intended for counting and indication of measured vertical angles.
b) Optical scheme of the transceiver(fig.14)

consists of: - transmitter channel;

The optical channels of the receiver and the reticle partially coincide (they have a common objective and a dichroic mirror).

Transmitter channel designed to create a powerful monochromatic pulse of short duration and small angular divergence of the beam and send it in the direction of the target.

Its composition: - OGK (mirror, flash lamp, active element-rod, reflector, prism);

Telescopic system of Galileo - to reduce the angular divergence of radiation.

Receiver channel designed to receive the radiation pulse reflected from the target and create the required level of light energy on the FPU photodiode. Its composition: - lens; - dichroic mirror.

Rice. fourteen. Optical scheme of the transceiver.

Left: 1- telescope; 2- mirror; 3- active element; 4- reflector; 5- flash lamp ISP-600; 6- prism; 7.8 - mirrors; 9- eyepiece.

Connector "POWER";

PSA connector (for connecting a calculating device);

Drying valve.
On the head of the transceiver are:

Drying valve;

Socket for sighting pole.
TARGET switch is designed to measure the distance to the first or second or third target located in the radiation range.

GATE switch is designed to set the minimum ranges 200, 400, 1000, 2000, 3000, closer than which the range measurement is impossible. The indicated minimum ranges correspond to the positions of the "STROBING" switch:

400 m - "0.4"

1000 m - "1"

2000 m - "2"

3000 m - "3"

When the switch position "STROBING" is set to position "3", the sensitivity of the photodetector to reflected signals (pulses) is increased.

Rice. fifteen. DAK-2M controls.

1 - drying cartridge; 2-node grid illumination; 3-switch LIGHT FILTER; 4-switch PURPOSE; 5.13-bracket; 6-control panel; 7-button MEASUREMENT; 8-button START; 9-knob BRIGHTNESS; 10-toggle switch BACKLIGHT; 11-toggle switch POWER; 12-pin PARAMETER CONTROL ; 14-switch STROBING; 15-level; 16-reflector; 17-scale mechanism for reading vertical angles.

Rice. 16. DAK-2M controls.

Left: 1-belt; 2-fuse; 3-plug LANTERN; 4-control panel; 5-ring; 6-connector PSA; 7,11-rings; 8-plug power supply; 9-button CALIBRATION; 10-button CHECK VOLT.

Right: 1-socket; 2-head; 3.9-drying valve; 4-body; 5-eyecup; 6-binocular; 7-handle vertical guidance; 8-bracket.

1. 
   Angle measuring platform (UIP)

UIP designed for mounting and leveling the transceiver, turning it around a vertical axis and measuring horizontal and directional angles.

Composition of the UIP(fig.17)

clamping device;

Device;

Ball level.

The UIP is mounted on a tripod and fastened through the threaded bushing with a set screw.

Rice. 17. Angle measuring platform DAK-2M.

1-handle for layering the worm; 2-level; 3-handle; 4 clamping device; 5-base with wheel; 6-drum; 7-handle of precise guidance; 8-nut; 9-limb; 10-handle; 11-threaded sleeve; 12-base; 13-lifting screw.

1. 
   Tripod designed to install the transceiver to install the transceiver in the working position at the required height. The tripod consists of a table, three paired rods and three retractable legs. The rods are interconnected by a hinge and a clamping device in which the retractable leg is clamped with a screw. The hinges are attached to the table with overlays.

1. 
   Battery 21 NKBN-3.5 is designed to power rangefinder blocks with direct current through a cable.

21 - the number of batteries in the battery;

NK - nickel-cadmium battery system;

B - battery type - panelless;

H - technological feature of the manufacture of plates - spread;

3.5 - nominal battery capacity in ampere-hours.

- buttons "MEASUREMENT 1" and "MEASUREMENT 2" - for measuring the distance to the first or second target located in the radiation range.

Rice. twenty. Controls of LPR-1.

Top: 1-casing; 2-handle; 3-index; 4-buttons MEASUREMENT1 and MEASUREMENT 2; 5-belt; 6-panel; 7-toggle switch handle LIGHT; 8 eyepiece sight; 9 screws; 10 eyepiece sight; 11-fork; 12-battery compartment cover; 13-toggle switch handle ON-OFF.

Bottom: 1 drying cartridge; 2-rmen; 3-bracket; 4-lid.

On the back and bottom sides:

Bracket for mounting the device on the UID bracket or on the bracket - adapter when installing the device on the compass;

drying cartridge;

Viewfinder lens;

telescope lens;

Connector with a cover for connecting the cable of remote buttons.

Rice. 21. Field of view of the LPR-1 indicator

1-range indicator; 2,5,6-dicimal dots; 3-readiness indicator (green); 4-battery discharge indicator (red).

Note . In the absence of a reflected pulse, zeros (00000) are displayed in all digits of the range indicator. In the absence of a probing pulse, zeros are displayed in all digits of the range indicator and a decimal point is displayed in the third digit (Fig. 21. position 5).

If there are several targets in the radiation target (in the break of the goniometric grid) during the measurement, the decimal point lights up in the low-order digit of the range indicator (Fig. 21. position 2).

If it is impossible to remove shielding interference beyond the break of the goniometric grid, and also in cases where interference is not observed, and the decimal point in the low (right) digit of the range indicator is lit, aim the rangefinder at the target so that the target overlaps, possibly large area rupture of the goniometric grid. Measure the range, then set the minimum range limit knob to a range value that exceeds the measured value by 50-100 meters and measure the range again. Repeat these steps until the decimal point in the most significant digit goes out.

When zeros are displayed in all digits of the range indicator and the decimal point is lit in the most significant digit (left) (Fig.21. position 6) of the indicator, it is necessary to reduce the minimum measured range by turning the minimum range limiting knob until a reliable measurement result is obtained.

2. Angle measuring device (Fig.22.).
Designed for installation of a rangefinder, aiming a rangefinder and measuring horizontal, vertical and directional angles

19

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Dear colleagues, since the main hero “is an artillery officer, your obedient servant had to understand a little about the issues of fire control in the period shortly before the start of WWI. As I suspected, the question turned out to be f-ski complicated, but still I managed to collect some information. This material does not in any way claim to be complete and comprehensive, it is only an attempt to bring together all the facts and conjectures that I now have.

Let's try "on the fingers" to understand the features of artillery fire. In order to aim the gun at the target, you need to set it with the correct sight (vertical pointing angle) and rear sight (horizontal pointing angle). In essence, the installation of the correct sight and rear sight comes down to all the artful science of artillery. However, it is easy to say, but difficult to do.

The simplest case is when our gun is stationary and stands on level ground and we need to hit the same stationary target. In this case, it would seem that it is enough to point the gun so that the barrel looks directly at the target (and we will have the correct rear sight), and find out the exact distance to the target. Then, using the artillery tables, we can calculate the elevation angle (sight), give it to the gun and boom! Let's hit the target.

In fact, this, of course, is not the case - if the target is far enough away, you need to take corrections for the wind, air humidity, gun wear, gunpowder temperature, etc. etc. - and even after all this, if the target is not too large, you will have to gouge it properly from the cannon, since slight deviations in the shape and weight of the projectiles, as well as the weight and quality of the charges, will still lead to a known spread of hits (ellipse scattering). But if we fire a certain number of projectiles, then in the end, according to the law of statistics, we will definitely hit the target.

But we will put the problem of corrections aside for now, and consider the weapon and the target as such spherical horses in a vacuum. Suppose shooting is carried out on an absolutely flat surface, with always the same humidity, not a breeze, the gun is made of material that does not burn out in principle, etc. etc. In this case, when firing from a stationary gun at a stationary target, it will really be enough to know the distance to the target, which gives us the angle of vertical aiming (sight) and the direction to it (sight)

But what if the target or weapon is not stationary? For example, how is it in the navy? The gun is located on a ship that is moving somewhere at a certain speed. His goal, disgusting, also does not stand still, it can go at absolutely any angle to our course. And with absolutely any speed that only comes into her captain's head. What then?

Since the enemy is shifting in space and taking into account the fact that we are shooting not from a turbolaser, which instantly hits the target, but from a gun, the projectile of which needs some time to reach the target, we need to take a lead, i.e. shoot not where the enemy ship is at the time of the shot, but where it will be in 20–30 seconds, by the time our projectile approaches.

It seems to be also easy - let's look at the diagram.

Our ship is at point O, the enemy ship is at point A. If, while at point O, our ship fires at the enemy from a cannon, then while the projectile is flying, the enemy ship will move to point B. Accordingly, during the flight of the projectile, the following will change:

1. Distance to the target ship (was OA, will become OB);
2. Bearing to the target (there was an S angle, but it will become a D angle)

Accordingly, in order to determine the correction of the sight, it is enough to know the difference between the length of the segments OA and OB, i.e. the amount of distance change (hereinafter - VIR). And in order to determine the correction of the rear sight, it is enough to know the difference between the angles S and D, i.e. the value of the bearing change

1. Distance to the target ship (OA);
2. Target bearing (angle S);
3. Target course;
4. Target speed.

Now let's consider how the information needed to calculate the VIR and VIP was obtained.

1. Distance to the target ship - obviously, according to the rangefinder. And even better - several rangefinders, preferably at least three. Then the most deviant value can be discarded, and the arithmetic mean can be taken from the other two. Determining the distance using several rangefinders is obviously more efficient.

2. Bearing of the target (heading angle, if you like) - with the accuracy of "half-finger-ceiling" is determined by any goniometer, but for a more accurate measurement it is desirable to have a sighting device - a device with high-quality optics, capable of (including) very accurately determining the heading angle goals. For sights intended for central aiming, the position of the target ship was determined with an error of 1-2 divisions of the rear sight of an artillery gun (i.e. 1-2 thousandths of a distance, at a distance of 90 kbt, the position of the ship was determined with an accuracy of 30 meters)

3. Target course. For this, arithmetic calculations and special artillery binoculars, with divisions applied to it, were already required. It was done like this - first it was necessary to identify the target ship. Remember its length. Measure the distance to it. Convert the length of the ship to the number of divisions on the artillery binoculars for a given distance. Those. calculate: "Sooo, the length of this ship is 150 meters, for 70 kbt a ship 150 meters long should occupy 7 divisions of artillery binoculars." After that, look at the ship through artillery binoculars and determine how many divisions it actually occupies there. If, for example, the ship occupies 7 spaces, this means that it is turned to us with its entire side. And if it is less (let's say - 5 divisions) - this means that the ship is located towards us at some angle. Calculating, again, is not too difficult - if we know the length of the ship (i.e. the hypotenuse AB, in the example it is 7) and we determined the length of its projection with the help of artbinoculars (i.e. the leg AC in the example is length 5), then to calculate the angle S is a matter of life.

The only thing I would like to add is that the role of artillery binoculars could be performed by the same sight

4. Target speed. Now that was more difficult. In principle, the speed could be estimated "by eye" (with appropriate accuracy), but it can, of course, be more accurate - knowing the distance to the target and its course, you can observe the target and determine its angular displacement speed - i.e. how quickly the bearing to the target changes. Further, the distance traveled by the ship is determined (again, nothing more complicated than right-angled triangles will have to be considered) and its speed.

Here, however, one can ask - why, for example, do we need to complicate everything so much, if we can simply measure the changes in VIP by observing the target ship in the sight? But here the thing is that the change in the VIP is non-linear, and therefore the data of current measurements quickly become obsolete.

The next question is what do we want from a fire control system (FCS)? But what.

The SLA should receive the following data:

1. Distance to the enemy target ship and bearing to it;
2. Course and speed of own ship.

At the same time, of course, the data must be constantly updated as quickly as possible.

1. The course and speed of the enemy target ship;
2. Convert the course/velocities into a model of the movement of ships (own and enemy), with the help of which you can predict the position of the ships;
3. Firing lead taking into account VIR, VIP and projectile flight time;
4. Sight and rear sight, taking into account lead (taking into account all kinds of corrections (gunpowder temperature, wind, humidity, etc.)).

The FCS must transfer the sight and rear sight from the giving device in the conning tower (central post) to artillery pieces so that the functions of the gunners with the guns are minimal (ideally, the guns' own sights are not used at all).

The SLA must ensure salvo firing of the guns selected by the senior artilleryman at the time chosen by him.

Artillery fire control devices arr 1910 of N.K. Geisler & K

They were installed on Russian dreadnoughts (both Baltic and Black Sea) and included many mechanisms for various purposes. All devices can be divided into giving (into which data was entered) and receiving (which gave out some data). In addition to them, there were many auxiliary devices that ensured the operation of the rest, but we will not talk about them, we will list the main ones:

Instruments for transmitting rangefinder readings

Givers - located in the rangefinder cabin. They had a scale that allows you to set the distance from 30 to 50 kbt with an accuracy of half a cable, from 50 to 75 kbt - 1 cable, and from 75 to 150 kbt - 5 cables. The operator, having determined the range using a range finder, set the appropriate value manually

The receivers - located in the conning tower and the CPU, had exactly the same dial as the givers. As soon as the operator of the giving device set a certain value, it was immediately reflected on the dial of the receiving device.

Devices for transmitting the direction of targets and signals

Pretty funny devices, the task of which was to indicate the ship on which to fire (but by no means the bearing on this ship), and orders were given on the type of attack "shot / attack / zeroing / volley / quick fire"

The giving devices were located in the conning tower, the receiving ones were at each casemate gun and one for each tower. They worked similarly to instruments for transmitting rangefinder readings.

Entire devices (devices for transmitting a horizontal sight)

This is where the ambiguities begin. Everything is more or less clear with the giving devices - they were located in the conning tower and had a scale of 140 divisions corresponding to the divisions of the gun sights (i.e. 1 division - 1/1000 of the distance) The receiving devices were placed directly on the sights of the guns. The system worked like this - the operator of the giving device in the conning tower (CPU) set a certain value on the scale. Accordingly, the same value was shown on the receiving devices, after which the gunner's task was to turn the sighting mechanisms until the horizontal aiming of the gun coincided with the arrow on the device. Then - it seems to be openwork, the gun is pointed correctly

There is a suspicion that the device did not give out the angle of the horizontal sight, but only a correction for lead. Not verified.

Devices for transferring the height of the sight

The most complex unit

Giving devices were located in the conning tower (CPU). Data on the distance to the target and VIR (the amount of change in the distance, if anyone has forgotten) were manually entered into the device, after which this device began to click something there and give out the distance to the target in the current time. Those. the device independently added / subtracted the VIR from the distance and transmitted this information to the receiving devices.

The receiving devices, as well as the receiving whole devices, were mounted on the sights of the guns. But it was not the distance that appeared on them, but the sight. Those. devices for transmitting the height of the sight independently converted the distance into the angle of the sight and gave it to the guns. The process was running continuously, i.e. at each moment of time, the arrow of the receiving device showed the actual sight at the current moment. Moreover, it was possible to make corrections in the receiving device of this system (by connecting several eccentrics). Those. if, for example, the gun was heavily shot and its firing range fell, say, by 3 kbt compared to the new one, it was enough to install the appropriate eccentric - now, to the angle of the sight transmitted from the giving device, specifically for this gun, an angle was added to compensate for the three-cable undershoot These were individual corrections for each gun.

Exactly according to the same principle, it was possible to introduce adjustments for the temperature of gunpowder (it was taken the same as the temperature in the cellars), as well as adjustments for the type of charge / projectile "training / combat / practical"

But that's not all.

The fact is that the accuracy of the installation of the sight came out “plus or minus a tram stop, adjusted for the azimuth of the North Star.” It was easy to make a mistake both with the range to the target and with the size of the VIR. Special cynicism also consisted in the fact that the range from the rangefinders always came with a certain delay. The fact is that the rangefinder determined the distance to the object at the time the measurement began. But in order to determine this range, he had to perform a number of actions, including “combining the picture”, etc. All this took some time. It took some more time to report a certain range and set its value on the giving device to transmit the rangefinder readings. Thus, according to various sources, the senior artillery officer saw on the receiving device for transmitting rangefinder readings not the current range, but the one that was almost a minute ago.

So, the giving device for transmitting the height of the sight gave the senior artilleryman the widest opportunities for this. At any time during the operation of the device, it was possible to manually enter a correction for the range or for the size of the VIR, and the device continued to calculate from the moment the correction was entered, already taking it into account. It was possible to turn off the device altogether and set the sight values ​​manually. And it was also possible to set the values ​​\u200b\u200bin a “jerk” - i.e. if, for example, our device shows a sight of 15 degrees, then we can fire three volleys in a row - at 14, at 15 and at 16 degrees without waiting for the shells to fall and without introducing range / VIR corrections, but the initial setting of the machine does not got lost.

And finally

Howlers and calls

Giving devices are located in the conning tower (CPU), and the howlers themselves - one for each gun. When the fire manager wants to fire a volley, he closes the corresponding circuits and the gunners fire shots at the guns.

Unfortunately, it is absolutely impossible to talk about the Geisler of the 1910 model as a full-fledged SLA. Why?

1. Geisler's OMS did not have a device to determine the bearing to the target (there was no sight);
2. There was no instrument that could calculate her course and the speed of the target ship. So having received the range (from the device for transmitting rangefinder readings) and determining the bearing to it with improvised means, everything else had to be calculated manually;
3. There were also no instruments to determine the course and speed of their own ship - they also had to be obtained by "improvised means", that is, not included in the Geisler kit;
4. There was no device for automatic calculation of VIR and VIP - i.e. having received and calculated the courses / speeds of their own ship and targets, it was necessary to calculate both VIR and VIP, again manually.

Thus, despite the presence of very advanced devices that automatically calculate the height of the sight, Geisler's OMS still required a very large amount of manual calculations - and this was not good.

Geisler's SLA did not exclude, and could not exclude, the use of gun sights by gunners. The fact is that the automatic sight height calculated the sight ... of course, for the moment when the ship is on an even keel. And the ship experiences both pitch and roll. And Geisler's SLA did not take it into account at all and in no way. Therefore, there is an assumption, very similar to the truth, that the task of the gunner of the gun included such a “twisting” of the tip, which would make it possible to compensate for the pitching of the ship. It is clear that it was necessary to "twist" constantly, although there are doubts that the 305-mm guns could be "stabilized" manually. Also, if I’m right that Geisler’s FCS did not transmit the horizontal aiming angle, but only the lead, then the gunner of each gun independently aimed his gun in the horizontal plane and only took the lead on orders from above.

Geisler's SLA allowed salvo fire. But the senior artilleryman could not give a simultaneous volley - he could give the signal to open fire, it is not the same. Those. imagine a picture - four towers of "Sevastopol", in each gunners "twist" the sights, compensating for pitching. Suddenly - howler! Someone has a normal sight, he shoots, and someone has not screwed it up yet, he twists it, fires a shot ... and a difference of 2-3 seconds greatly increases the dispersion of shells. Thus, giving a signal does not mean receiving a one-time salvo.

But here's what Geisler's OMS did really well - it was with the transfer of data from the giving devices in the conning tower to the receiving devices at the guns. There were no problems here, and the system turned out to be very reliable and fast.

In other words, the Geisler devices of the 1910 model were not so much an OMS, but a way of transmitting data from the glavart to the guns (although the presence of an automatic calculation of the height of the sight gives the right to attribute Geisler to the OMS).

A sighting device appeared in Erickson's MSA, while it was connected to an electromechanical device that gave out the horizontal aiming angle. Thus, apparently, the rotation of the sight led to the automatic displacement of the arrows on the sights of the guns.

There were 2 central gunners in Erickson's MSA, one of them was engaged in horizontal aiming, the second - vertical, and it was they (and not the gunners) who took into account the pitching angle - this angle was constantly measured and added to the aiming angle on an even keel. So the gunners had only to twist their guns so that the sight and rear sight corresponded to the values ​​​​of the arrows on the sights. The gunner no longer needed to look into the gunsight.

Generally speaking, trying to “keep up” with the pitching by manually stabilizing the gun looks strange. It would be much easier to resolve the issue using a different principle - a device that would close the circuit and fire a shot when the ship was on an even keel. In Russia, there were pitching control devices based on the operation of the pendulum. But alas, they had a fair amount of error and could not be used for artillery fire. To tell the truth, the Germans had such a device only after Jutland, and Erickson still gave results that were not worse than "manual stabilization".

Volley fire was carried out according to a new principle - now, when the gunners in the tower were ready, they pressed a special pedal, and the senior gunner closed the circuit by pressing his own pedal in the conning tower (CPU) as the towers were ready. Those. volleys became really one-time.

Whether Erickson had devices for automatic calculation of VIR and VIP - I do not know. But what is known for certain - as of 1911-1912. Erickson's OMS was tragically unprepared. The transmission mechanisms from the giving devices to the receiving ones did not work well. The process took much longer than in Geisler's OMS, but mismatches constantly occurred. The roll control devices worked too slowly, so that the sight and rear sight of the central gunners "did not keep up" with the roll - with corresponding consequences for the accuracy of fire. What was to be done?

The Russian Imperial Navy followed a rather original path. The Geisler system, model 1910, was installed on the newest battleships. And since of the entire FCS there was only sight height calculation devices, it was apparently decided not to wait until Erickson's FCS was brought to mind, not to try to buy a new FCS (for example, from the British) entirely, but to acquire / bring to mind the missing devices and simply supplement the Geisler system with them.

An interesting sequence is given by Mr. Serg on Tsushima: http://tsushima.su/forums/viewtopic.php?id=6342&p=1

On January 11, MTK decided to install the Erickson system in Seva.
12 May Erickson is not ready, a contract is signed with Geisler.
On September 12, a contract was signed with Erickson for the installation of additional instruments.
September 13 Erickson completed the Pollen and AVP Geisler instrument.
January 14, installation of a set of Pollen's instruments on the PV.
June 14, tests of Pollen's devices on PV were completed
December 15th conclusion of a contract for the development and installation of a central heating system.
On 16th autumn, the installation of the central heating was completed.
17g shooting with CN.

As a result, the SLA of our "Sevastopol" has become that even a hodgepodge. The VIR and VIP calculation machines were supplied by English ones bought from Pollan. The sights are at Erickson. The machine for calculating the height of the sight was at first Geisler, then replaced by Erickson. To determine the courses, a gyroscope was installed (but not the fact that in WWI, maybe later ...) In general, around 1916, our Sevastopol received a completely first-class central aiming system for those times.

And what about our sworn friends?

It seems that the best way to Jutland was with the British. The guys from the island came up with the so-called "Dreyer Table", which automated the processes of developing vertical and horizontal sights as much as possible.

The British had to take the bearing and determine the distance to the target manually, but the course and speed of the enemy ship was automatically calculated by the Dumaresque device. Again, as far as I understood, the results of these calculations were automatically transmitted to the “Dreyer table”, which received data on its own course / speed from some analogue of a speedometer and gyrocompass, built a model of the movement of ships, calculated VIR and VIP. In our country, even after the appearance of the Pollan device, which calculated the VIR, the transfer of the VIR to the machine for calculating the height of the sight took place as follows - the operator read Pollan's readings, then entered them into the machine for calculating the height of the sight. With the British, everything happened automatically.

I tried to bring the data on the LMS into a single table, this is what happened:

Alas for me - probably the table sins with many errors, the data on the German SLA are extremely lapidary: http://navycollection.narod.ru/library/Haase/artillery.htm

And in English - in English, which I do not know: http://www.dreadnoughtproject.org/tfs/index.php/Dreyer_Fire_Control_Table

How the British solved the issue with compensation of longitudinal / transverse rolling - I do not know. But the Germans did not have any compensating devices (they appeared only after Jutland).

Generally speaking, it turns out that the SLA of the Baltic dreadnoughts was still inferior to the British, and was approximately on the same level with the Germans. True, with one exception.

On the German "Derflinger" there were 7 (in words - SEVEN) rangefinders. And they all measured the distance to the enemy, and the average value got into the machine for calculating the sight. At the domestic "Sevastopol" initially there were only two rangefinders (there were also the so-called Krylov rangefinders, but they were nothing more than improved Lujols-Myakishev micrometers and did not provide high-quality measurements at long distances).

On the one hand, it would seem that such rangefinders (of much better quality than those of the British) just provided the Germans with a quick sighting in Jutland, but is this so? The same "Derflinger" shot only from the 6th volley, and even then, in general, by accident (in theory, the sixth volley was supposed to give a flight, the leader of the "Derflinger" Hase tried to take the British into the fork, however, to his surprise, there was a cover ). "Goeben" in general also did not show brilliant results. But it must be taken into account that the Germans nevertheless shot much better than the British, probably there is some merit of the German rangefinders in this.

But I believe that the best accuracy of the German ships is by no means the result of superiority over the British in the material part, but a completely different system for training gunners.

Here I will allow myself to make some excerpts from the book Hector Charles Bywater and Hubert Cecil Ferraby Strange Intelligence. Memoirs of Naval Secret Service. Constable, London, 1931: http://militera.lib.ru/h/bywater_ferraby/index.html

Influenced by Admiral Thomsen German Navy began experimenting with long-range shooting in 1895... ...The newly created navy can afford to be less conservative than navies with old traditions. And therefore, in Germany, all innovations capable of enhancing the combat power of the fleet were guaranteed official approval in advance ....

The Germans, having made sure that shooting at long distances was feasible in practice, immediately gave their side guns the largest possible aiming angle ...

... If the gun turrets of the Germans already in 1900 allowed the guns to raise their barrels by 30 degrees, then on the British ships the angle of elevation did not exceed 13.5 degrees, which gave the German ships significant advantages. If war had broken out at that time, the German fleet would have greatly, even decisively, surpassed us in accuracy and range of fire ....

... The centralized fire control system "Fire-director", installed, as already noted, on the ships of the British fleet, the Germans did not have for some time after the Battle of Jutland, but the effectiveness of their fire was confirmed by the results of this battle.

Of course, these results were the fruit of twenty years of intensive work, persistent and meticulous, which is generally characteristic of the Germans. For every hundred pounds that we allotted in those years for research in the field of artillery, Germany allocated a thousand. Let's take just one example. Secret Service agents learned in 1910 that the Germans allot a lot more shells for exercises than we do for large-caliber guns - 80 percent more shots. Live firing exercises against armored target ships were a constant practice among the Germans, while in the British Navy they were very rare or even not carried out at all ....

... In 1910, important exercises were held in the Baltic using the Richtungsweiser device installed on board the Nassau and Westfalen ships. A high percentage of hits on moving targets from distances up to 11,000 meters was demonstrated, and after certain improvements, new practical tests were organized.

But in March 1911, accurate and much explaining information was received. It dealt with the results of firing exercises carried out by a division of German warships equipped with 280-mm guns at a towed target at a distance of an average of 11,500 meters with fairly heavy seas and moderate visibility. 8 percent of the shells hit the target. This result was far superior to anything we had been told before. Therefore, the experts showed skepticism, but the evidence was quite reliable.

It was quite clear that the campaign was undertaken to test and compare the merits of target designation and guidance systems. One of them was already on the battleship Alsace, and the other, experimental, was installed on the Blucher. The shooting site was 30 miles southwest of the Faroe Islands, the target was a light cruiser that was part of the division. It is clear that they did not shoot at the cruiser itself. He, as they say in the British Navy, was a “shifted target”, that is, aiming was carried out at the target ship, while the guns themselves were shifted to a certain angle and fired. The check is very simple - if the instruments are working correctly, then the shells will fall exactly at the calculated distance from the stern of the target ship.

The fundamental advantage of this method, invented, according to their own statements, by the Germans, is that, without compromising the accuracy of the results obtained, it makes it possible to replace conventional targets in firing, which, due to heavy engines and mechanisms, can only be towed at low speed and usually in good weather.

The "shift" estimate could only be called approximate to a certain extent, because it lacks the final fact - holes in the target, but on the other hand, and the data obtained from it are accurate enough for all practical purposes.

During the first experiment, Alsace and Blucher fired from a distance of 10,000 meters at a target that was represented by a light cruiser traveling at a speed of 14 to 20 knots.

These conditions were unusually harsh for the era, and it is not surprising that the report of the results of these shootings caused controversy, and even its veracity was refuted by some British experts on naval artillery. However, these reports were true, and the test results were indeed incredibly successful.

From 10,000 meters, Alsace, armed with old 280-mm cannons, fired a three-gun volley in the wake of the target, that is, if the guns were not aimed “with a shift”, the shells would hit right on target. The armadillo easily managed the same when firing from a distance of 12,000 meters.

"Blucher" was armed with 12 new 210 mm guns. He also easily managed to hit the target, most of the shells hit in the immediate vicinity or directly into the wake left by the target cruiser.

On the second day, the distance was increased to 13,000 meters. The weather was fine, and a little swell rocked the ships. Despite the increased distance, "Alsace" shot well, that before the "Blucher", he exceeded all expectations.

Moving at a speed of 21 knots, the armored cruiser "forked" the target ship, traveling at 18 knots, from the third salvo. Moreover, according to the estimates of experts who were on the target cruiser, one could confidently state the hit of one or more shells in each of the eleven volleys that followed. Given the relatively small caliber of the guns, the high speed with which both the “shooter” and the target, and the state of the sea, the result of firing at that time could be called phenomenal. All of these details, and much more, were contained in a report sent by our agent to the Secret Service.

When the report reached the Admiralty, some old officers considered it erroneous or false. The agent who wrote the report was called to London to discuss the matter. He was told that the information on the test results indicated by him in the report was “absolutely impossible”, that not a single ship would be able to hit a moving target on the move at a distance of more than 11,000 meters, in general, that all this was fiction or a mistake.

Quite by accident, these results of the German shooting became known a few weeks before the first test by the British Navy of Admiral Scott's fire control system, nicknamed "Fire-director". HMS Neptune was the first ship on which this system was installed. He conducted a firing practice in March 1911 with excellent results. But official conservatism slowed down the introduction of the device on other ships. This position lasted until November 1912, when comparative tests of the Director system installed on the Thunderer ship and the old system installed on the Orion were carried out.

Sir Percy Scott described the teachings in the following words:

“The distance was 8200 meters, the “shooter” ships were moving at a speed of 12 knots, the targets were towed at the same speed. Both ships simultaneously opened fire immediately after the signal. The Thunderer shot very well. Orion sent its shells in all directions. Three minutes later, the signal "Cease fire!" was given, and the target was checked. As a result, it turned out that the Thunderer made six more hits than the Orion.

As far as we know, the first live firing in the British Navy at a distance of 13,000 meters took place in 1913, when the ship "Neptune" fired at a target from such a distance.

Those who followed the development of the tools and techniques of artillery fire in Germany knew what we should expect. And if anything turned out to be a surprise, it was only the fact that in the Battle of Jutland the ratio of the number of shells that hit the target to total number fired shells did not exceed 3.5%.

I will take the liberty of asserting that the quality of German shooting was in the artillery training system, which was much better than that of the British. As a result, the Germans compensated for some superiority of the British in the LMS with professionalism.

FEDERAL AGENCY FOR EDUCATION

State educational institution of higher professional education

MOSCOW STATE INSTITUTE OF RADIO ENGINEERING ELECTRONICS AND AUTOMATION (TECHNICAL UNIVERSITY)

COURSE WORK

by discipline

"Physical foundations of measurements"

Theme: Rangefinder

№ student group performer - ES-2-08

Surname of the I. O. of the performer - Prusakov A. A.

Surname and name of the head - Rusanov K. E.

Moscow 2010

Introduction ____________________________________________________________3

2. Types of rangefinders ______________________________________________5

3. Laser rangefinder _____________________________________________6

3.1. Physical basis of measurements and principle of operation _________________8

3.2 Design features and principle of operation. Types and application ____12

4. Optical rangefinder __________________________________________19

4.1. Physical bases of measurements and principle of operation ________________21

4.1.2 Fixed Angle Thread Distance Meter ____________________________23

4.1.3 Measuring the slope distance with a filament distance meter __________25

4.2 Design features and principle of operation ___________________________________27

5. Conclusion ____________________________________________________________29

6. Bibliographic list ______________________________________30

1. Introduction

Rangefinder- a device designed to determine the distance from the observer to the object. Used in geodesy, for focusing in photography, in sights of weapons, bombing systems, etc.

Geodesy- branch of production associated with measurements on the ground. It is an integral part of construction work. With the help of geodesy, projects of buildings and structures are transferred from paper to nature with millimeter accuracy, volumes of materials are calculated, and compliance with the geometric parameters of structures is monitored. It also finds application in mining for calculating blasting and rock volumes.

The main tasks of geodesy:

Among the many tasks of geodesy, one can single out “long-term tasks” and “tasks for the coming years”.

Long term tasks include:

determination of the figure, size and gravitational field of the Earth;

distribution of a single coordinate system to the territory of a separate state, continent and the whole Earth as a whole;

performing measurements on the surface of the earth;

depiction of land surface areas on topographic maps and plans;

study of global displacements of the earth's crust blocks.

Currently, the main tasks for the coming years in Russia are as follows:

creation of state and local cadastres: land real estate, water forest, urban, etc.;

topographic and geodetic support for the delimitation (definition) and demarcation (designation) of the state border of Russia;

development and implementation of standards in the field of digital mapping;

creation of digital and electronic maps and their data banks;

development of a concept and a state program for the widespread transition to satellite methods for autonomous determination of coordinates;

creation of a comprehensive national atlas of Russia and others.

Laser ranging is one of the first areas of practical application of lasers in foreign military equipment. The first experiments date back to 1961, and now laser range finders are used both in ground military equipment (artillery, such), and in aviation (range finders, altimeters, target designators), and in the navy. This technique has passed combat trials in Vietnam and the Middle East. Currently, a number of rangefinders have been adopted by many armies of the world.

Rice. 2 - Laser sight-rangefinder. First used on T72A

2. Types of rangefinders

Rangefinder devices are divided into active and passive:

active:

• sound rangefinder

  light rangefinder

  laser rangefinder

passive:

• rangefinders using an optical parallax rangefinder camera)

  rangefinders that use object-to-pattern matching

The principle of operation of active type rangefinders is to measure the time it takes for the signal sent by the rangefinder to travel the distance to the object and back. The speed of signal propagation (the speed of light or sound) is assumed to be known.

The measurement of distances with passive type rangefinders is based on determining the height h of an isosceles triangle ABC, for example, using the known side AB = l (base) and the opposite acute angle b (the so-called parallax angle). For small angles b (expressed in radians)

One of the quantities, l or b, is usually constant, and the other is variable (measured). On this basis, rangefinders are distinguished with constant angle and rangefinders with a fixed base.

3. Laser rangefinder

Laser range finder - a device for measuring distances using a laser beam.

It is widely used in engineering geodesy, topographic survey, military navigation, gastronomic research, and photography.

A laser rangefinder is a device consisting of a pulsed laser radiation detector. By measuring the time it takes the beam to travel to the reflector and back, and knowing the value of the speed of light, it is possible to calculate the distance between the laser and the reflecting object.

Fig.1 Modern models of laser rangefinders.

electromagnetic radiation to propagate at a constant speed makes it possible to determine the distance to the object. So, with the pulse method of ranging, the following ratio is used:

where L- the distance to the object, the speed of light in vacuum, the refractive index of the medium in which the radiation propagates, t is the time it takes for the pulse to reach the target and back.

Consideration of this relation shows that the potential accuracy of distance measurement is determined by the accuracy of measurement of the time of passage of the energy pulse to the object and back. It is clear that the shorter the pulse, the better.

3.1. Physical bases of measurements and principle of operation

The task of determining the distance between the range finder and the target is reduced to measuring the corresponding time interval between the probing signal and the signal, the reflection from the target. There are three methods for measuring range, depending on what kind of modulation of laser radiation is used in the range finder: pulse, phase or phase-pulse. The essence of the pulse method of ranging is that a probing pulse is sent to the object, which also starts a time counter in the rangefinder. When the pulse reflected by the object reaches the rangefinder, it stops the counter. According to the time interval, the distance to the object is automatically displayed in front of the operator. Let us estimate the accuracy of this ranging method if it is known that the accuracy of measuring the time interval between the probing and reflected signals corresponds to 10 V -9 s. Since we can assume that the speed of light is 3 * 10 cm / s, we get an error in changing the distance of about 30 cm. Experts believe that this is quite enough to solve a number of practical problems.

With the phase ranging method, laser radiation is modulated according to a sinusoidal law. In this case, the radiation intensity varies within a significant range. Depending on the distance to the object, the phase of the signal that fell on the object changes. The signal reflected from the object will arrive at the receiving device also with a certain phase, depending on the distance. Let us estimate the error of a phase rangefinder suitable for field operation. Experts say that it is not difficult for the operator to determine the phase with an error of no more than one degree. If the modulation frequency of the laser radiation is 10 MHz, then the distance measurement error will be about 5 cm.

According to the principle of operation, rangefinders are divided into two main groups, geometric and physical types.

Fig.2 The principle of operation of the rangefinder

The first group consists of geometric rangefinders. The measurement of distances with a range finder of this type is based on determining the height h of an isosceles triangle ABC (Fig. 3), for example, using the known side AB = I (base) and the opposite acute angle. One of the quantities, I, is usually a constant, and the other is a variable (measured). On this basis, rangefinders with a constant angle and rangefinders with a constant base are distinguished. A fixed angle rangefinder is a telescope with two parallel filaments in the field of view, and a portable rail with equidistant divisions serves as the base. The distance to the base measured by the rangefinder is proportional to the number of divisions of the staff visible through the telescope between the threads. Many geodetic instruments (theodolites, levels, etc.) work according to this principle. The relative error of the filament rangefinder is 0.3-1%. More complex optical rangefinders with a fixed base are built on the principle of superimposing images of an object constructed by beams that have passed through various optical systems of the rangefinder. Alignment is performed using an optical compensator located in one of the optical systems, and the measurement result is read on a special scale. Monocular rangefinders with a base of 3-10 cm are widely used as photographic rangefinders. The error of optical rangefinders with a constant base is less than 0.1% of the measured distance.

The principle of operation of a physical type rangefinder is to measure the time it takes the signal sent by the rangefinder to travel the distance to an object and back. The ability of electromagnetic radiation to propagate at a constant speed makes it possible to determine the distance to an object. Distinguish pulse and phase methods of distance measurement.

With the pulse method, a probing pulse is sent to the object, which starts a time counter in the rangefinder. When the pulse reflected by the object returns to the rangefinder, it stops the counter. By the time interval (delay of the reflected pulse), using the built-in microprocessor, the distance to the object is determined:

where: L is the distance to the object, c is the speed of radiation propagation, t is the time it takes the pulse to reach the target and back.

Rice. 3 - The principle of operation of the geometric type rangefinder
AB - base, h - measured distance

With the phase method, the radiation is modulated according to a sinusoidal law using a modulator (an electro-optical crystal that changes its parameters under the influence of an electrical signal). The reflected radiation enters the photodetector, where the modulating signal is extracted. Depending on the distance to the object, the phase of the reflected signal changes relative to the phase of the signal in the modulator. By measuring the phase difference, the distance to the object is measured.

3.2 Design features and principle of operation. Types and application

The first XM-23 laser rangefinder was tested and adopted by the armies. It is designed for use in advanced observation posts of the ground forces. The radiation source in it is a ruby ​​laser with an output power of 2.5 W and a pulse duration of 30 ns. Integrated circuits are widely used in the design of the rangefinder. The emitter, receiver and optical elements are mounted in a monoblock, which has scales for accurately reporting the azimuth and elevation angle of the target. The rangefinder is powered by a 24V nickel-cadmium battery that provides 100 range measurements without recharging. In a different artillery rangefinder, also adopted by the armies, there is a device for simultaneously determining the range of up to four targets lying on the same straight line, by sequential gating of distances of 200,600,1000, 2000 and 3000m.

Interesting Swedish laser rangefinder. It is intended for use in fire control systems of onboard naval and coastal artillery. The design of the rangefinder is particularly durable, which allows it to be used in difficult conditions. The rangefinder can be paired, if necessary, with an image intensifier or a television sight. The operating mode of the rangefinder provides for either measurements every 2s. within 20s. and with a pause between a series of measurements for 20 s. or every 4s. for a long time. Digital range indicators work in such a way that when one of the indicators gives the last measured range, the other four previous distance measurements are stored in the memory of the other.

A very successful laser rangefinder is the LP-4. It has an optical-mechanical shutter as a Q-switch. The receiving part of the rangefinder is also the sight of the operator. The diameter of the input optical system is 70mm. The receiver is a portable photodiode, the sensitivity of which has a maximum value at a wavelength of 1.06 μm. The meter is equipped with a range strobing circuit, which operates according to the operator's setting from 200 to 3000 m. In the scheme of the optical sight, a protective filter is placed in front of the eyepiece to protect the operator's eye from the effects of his laser when receiving the reflected pulse. The emitter and receiver are mounted in one housing. The elevation angle of the target is determined within + 25 degrees. The battery provides 150 distance measurements without recharging, its weight is only 1 kg. The rangefinder has been tested and purchased in a number of countries such as - Canada, Sweden, Denmark, Italy, Australia. In addition, the British Ministry of Defense signed a contract for the supply of a modified LP-4 rangefinder weighing 4.4 kg to the British army.

Portable laser rangefinders are designed for infantry units and forward artillery observers. One of these rangefinders is made in the form of binoculars. The source of radiation and the receiver are mounted in a common housing, with a monocular optical sight of six times magnification, in the field of view of which there is a light panel of LEDs, which are clearly distinguishable both at night and during the day. The laser uses an yttrium aluminum garnet as a radiation source, with a Q-switch on lithium niobate. This provides a peak power of 1.5 MW. The receiving part uses a dual avalanche photodetector with a broadband low noise amplifier, which makes it possible to detect short pulses with a low power of only 10 V -9 W. False signals reflected from nearby objects that are in the barrel with the target are eliminated using a range gating circuit. The power source is a small-sized rechargeable battery that provides 250 measurements without recharging. The electronic units of the rangefinder are made on integrated and hybrid circuits, which made it possible to increase the mass of the rangefinder together with the power source to 2 kg.

The installation of laser rangefinders on tanks immediately interested foreign developers of military weapons. This is due to the fact that on a tank it is possible to introduce a rangefinder into the tank's fire control system, thereby increasing its combat qualities. For this, the AN / VVS-1 rangefinder was developed for the M60A tank. It did not differ in design from a laser artillery rangefinder on a ruby, however, in addition to issuing range data on a digital display in the tank's fire control system calculator. In this case, the range measurement can be performed both by the gunner and the tank commander. Rangefinder operation mode - 15 measurements per minute for one hour. Foreign press reports that a more advanced rangefinder, developed later, has range limits from 200 to 4700m. with an accuracy of + 10 m, and a computer connected to the tank's fire control system, where, together with other data, 9 more types of ammunition data are processed. This, according to the developers, makes it possible to hit the target with the first shot. The fire control system of a tank gun has an analog, considered earlier, as a rangefinder, but it includes seven more sensory sensors and an optical sight. The name of the Kobeld installation. The press reports that it provides a high probability of hitting the target, and despite the complexity of this installation, the ballistics mechanism switch to the position corresponding to the selected type of shot, and then press the laser rangefinder button. When firing at a moving target, the gunner additionally lowers the fire control interlock switch so that the signal from the turret traverse speed sensor when tracking the target goes behind the tachometer to the computing device, helping to generate a signal from the institution. The laser rangefinder, which is part of the Kobeld system, allows you to measure the range simultaneously to two targets located in the alignment. The system is fast-acting, which allows you to shoot in the shortest possible time.

An analysis of the graphs shows that the use of a system with a laser rangefinder and a computer provides a probability of hitting a target close to the calculated one. The graphs also show how much more likely it is to hit a moving target. If for stationary targets the probability of hitting when using a laser system compared to the probability of hitting when using a system with a stereo rangefinder does not make a big difference at a distance of about 1000m, and is felt only at a distance of 1500m or more, then for moving targets the gain is clear. It can be seen that the probability of hitting a moving target when using a laser system, compared with the probability of hitting when using a system with a stereo range finder already at a distance of 100 m, increases by more than 3.5 times, and at a distance of 2000 m., where the system with a stereo range finder becomes practically ineffective, laser the system provides a probability of defeat from the first shot of about 0.3.

In armies, in addition to artillery and tanks, laser rangefinders are used in systems where it is required to determine the range with high accuracy in a short period of time. So, in the press it was reported that an automatic system for tracking air targets and measuring the distance to them was developed. The system allows accurate measurement of azimuth, elevation and range. Data can be recorded on magnetic tape and processed on a computer. The system has a small size and weight and is placed on a mobile van. The system includes a laser operating in the infrared range. Infrared TV camera receiver, TV monitor, servo-wire tracking mirror, digital display and recorder. The neodymium glass laser device operates in Q-switched mode and emits energy at a wavelength of 1.06 µm. The radiation power is 1 MW per pulse with a duration of 25 ns and a pulse repetition rate of 100 Hz. The divergence of the laser beam is 10 mrad. Tracking channels use various types of photodetectors. The receiver uses a silicon LED. In the tracking channel - a grating consisting of four photodiodes, with the help of which a mismatch signal is generated when the target is shifted away from the axis of sight in azimuth and elevation. The signal from each receiver is fed to a video amplifier with a logarithmic response and a dynamic range of 60 dB. The minimum threshold signal at which the system monitors the target is 5 * 10V-8W. The target tracking mirror is driven in azimuth and elevation by servomotors. The tracking system allows you to determine the location of air targets at a distance of up to 19 km. while the accuracy of target tracking, determined experimentally, is 0.1 mrad. in azimuth and 0.2 mrad in elevation of the target. Distance measurement accuracy + 15 cm.

Laser rangefinders on ruby ​​and neodymium glass provide distance measurement to stationary or slowly moving objects, since the pulse repetition rate is low. Not more than one hertz. If it is necessary to measure short distances, but with a higher frequency of measurement cycles, then phase rangefinders with a semiconductor laser emitter are used. As a rule, they use gallium arsenide as a source. Here is a description of one of the rangefinders: output power 6.5 W per pulse, the duration of which is 0.2 μs, and the pulse repetition rate is 20 kHz. The laser beam divergence is 350*160 mrad i.e. resembles a petal. If necessary, the angular divergence of the beam can be reduced to 2 mrad. The receiver consists of an optical system, and the focal plane of which is a diaphragm that limits the field of view of the receiver to the desired size. Collimation is performed by a short focus lens located behind the diaphragm. The working wavelength is 0.902 microns, and the range is from 0 to 400m. The press reports that these characteristics have been significantly improved in later designs. So, for example, a laser rangefinder with a range of 1500m has already been developed. and distance measurement accuracy + 30m. This rangefinder has a repetition rate of 12.5 kHz with a pulse duration of 1 μs. Another rangefinder developed in the USA has a range of 30 to 6400m. The pulse power is 100W, and the pulse repetition rate is 1000 Hz.

Since several types of rangefinders are used, there has been a tendency to unify laser systems in the form of separate modules. This simplifies their assembly, as well as the replacement of individual modules during operation. According to experts, the modular design of the laser rangefinder provides maximum reliability and maintainability in the field.

The emitter module consists of a rod, a pump lamp, an illuminator, a high-voltage transformer, and resonator mirrors. quality modulator. As a radiation source, neodymium glass or aluminum-sodium garnet is usually used, which ensures the operation of the rangefinder without a cooling system. All these elements of the head are placed in a rigid cylindrical body. Precise machining of seats on both ends of the cylindrical head body allows for quick replacement and installation without additional adjustment, which ensures ease of maintenance and repair. For the initial adjustment of the optical system, a reference mirror is used, mounted on a carefully machined surface of the head, perpendicular to the axis of the cylindrical body. A diffusion-type illuminator consists of two cylinders entering one into the other, between the walls of which there is a layer of magnesium oxide. The Q-switch is designed for continuous stable operation or pulsed with fast starts. the main data of the unified head are as follows: wavelength - 1.06 μm, pump energy - 25 J, output pulse energy - 0.2 J, pulse duration 25 ns, pulse repetition rate 0.33 Hz for 12 s, operation with a frequency of 1 Hz is allowed) , the angle of divergence is 2 mrad. Due to the high sensitivity to internal noise, the photodiode, preamplifier and power supply are housed in the same housing with the most dense arrangement possible, and in some models it is all made in a single compact unit. This provides a sensitivity of the order of 5 * 10 in -8 watts.

The amplifier has a threshold circuit that is activated at the moment when the pulse reaches half the maximum amplitude, which helps to improve the accuracy of the rangefinder, because it reduces the effect of fluctuations in the amplitude of the incoming pulse. The start and stop signals are generated by the same photodetector and follow the same path, which eliminates systematic ranging errors. The optical system consists of an afocal telescope to reduce the divergence of the laser beam and a focusing lens for the photodetector. Photodiodes have an active area diameter of 50, 100, and 200 µm. A significant reduction in size is facilitated by the fact that the receiving and transmitting optical systems are combined, and the central part is used to form the radiation of the transmitter, and the peripheral part is used to receive the signal reflected from the target.

4. Optical rangefinder

Optical rangefinders is a generalized name for a group of rangefinders with visual aiming at an object (target), the operation of which is based on the use of the laws of geometric (beam) optics. Optical rangefinders are common: with a constant angle and a remote base (for example, a filament rangefinder, which is supplied by many geodetic instruments - theodolites, levels, etc.); with a constant internal base - monocular (for example, a photographic rangefinder) and binocular (stereoscopic rangefinders).

Optical range finder (light range finder) - a device for measuring distances by the time it takes optical radiation (light) to travel the measured distance. An optical rangefinder contains a source of optical radiation, a device for controlling its parameters, a transmitting and receiving system, a photodetector and a device for measuring time intervals. The optical rangefinder is divided into pulse and phase, depending on the methods for determining the time it takes the radiation to travel the distance from the object and back.

Rice. 4 - Modern optical rangefinder

Fig. 5 - Optical rangefinder type "Seagull"

In rangefinders, it is not the length of the line itself that is measured, but some other value, relative to which the length of the line is a function.

As previously mentioned, 3 types of rangefinders are used in geodesy:

optical (rangefinders of geometric type),

electro-optical (light range finders),

radio engineering (radio rangefinders).

4.1. Physical bases of measurements and principle of operation

Rice. 6 Geometric scheme of optical rangefinders

Let it be required to find the distance AB. We place an optical rangefinder at point A, and a rail at point B perpendicular to the line AB.

Denote: l - segment of the rail GM,
φ - the angle at which this segment is visible from point A.

From triangle AGB we have:

D=1/2*ctg(φ/2) (4.1.1)

D = l * сtg(φ) (4.1.2)

Usually the angle φ is small (up to 1 o), and by applying the expansion of the function Ctgφ in a series, formula (4.1.1) can be reduced to the form (4.1.2). On the right side of these formulas, there are two arguments with respect to which the distance D is a function. If one of the arguments has a constant value, then to find the distance D it is enough to measure only one value. Depending on what value - φ or l - is taken constant, there are rangefinders with a constant angle and rangefinders with a constant basis.

In a rangefinder with a constant angle, the segment l is measured, and the angle φ is constant; it is called the diastimometric angle.

In rangefinders with a constant basis, the angle φ is measured, which is called the parallactic angle; the segment l has a constant known length and is called a basis.

4.1.2 Constant angle thread distance meter

In the grid of threads of telescopes, as a rule, there are two additional horizontal threads located on both sides of the center of the grid of threads at equal distances from it; these are rangefinder threads (Fig. 7).

Let's draw the path of rays passing through the rangefinder filaments in the Kepler tube with external focusing. The device is installed above point A; at point B there is a rail installed perpendicular to the sight line of the pipe. Find the distance between points A and B.

Rice. 7 - Rangefinder threads

Let's construct the course of rays from the points m and g of the range-finding threads. Rays from points m and g, going parallel to the optical axis, after refraction on the objective lens, will cross this axis at the front focus point F and fall into points M and G of the rail. The distance from point A to point B will be:

D = l/2 * Ctg(φ/2) + fob + d (4.1.2.1)

where d is the distance from the center of the lens to the axis of rotation of the theodolite;
f about - focal length of the lens;
l is the length of the segment MG on the rail.

Denote (f about + d) through c, and the value 1/2*Ctg φ/2 - through C, then

D = C * l + c. (4.1.2.2)

The constant C is called the rangefinder coefficient. From Dm "OF we have:

Ctg φ / 2 \u003d ОF / m "O; m" O \u003d p / 2 (4.1.2.3)

Ctg φ/2 = (fob*2)/p, (4.1.2.4)

where p is the distance between the rangefinding threads. Next we write:

C \u003d f about / p. (4.1.2.5)

The rangefinder coefficient is equal to the ratio of the focal length of the lens to the distance between the rangefinder filaments. Usually, the coefficient C is taken equal to 100, then Ctg φ / 2 = 200 and φ = 34.38 ". At C = 100 and fob = 200 mm, the distance between the threads is 2 mm.

4.1.3 Measuring the slope distance with a filament distance meter

Let the sight line of the pipe JK when measuring the distance AB has an angle of inclination ν, and the segment l is measured along the rail (Fig. 8). If the rail were installed perpendicular to the pipe sight line, then the slope distance would be:

D = l 0 * C + c (4.1.3.1)

l 0 = l*Cos ν (4.1.3.2)

D = C*l*Cosν + c. (4.1.3.3)

The horizontal distance of the line S is determined from Δ JKE:

S = D*Cosν (4.1.3.4)

S= C*l*Cos2v + c*Cosv. (4.1.3.5)

rice. 8 - Measuring the slant distance with a filament rangefinder

For the convenience of calculations, we take the second term equal to c*Cos2ν ; since the c value is small (about 30 cm), such a replacement will not introduce a noticeable error in the calculations. Then

S = (C * l + c) * Cos 2 ν (4.1.3.6)

S = D"* Cos2v (4.1.3.7)

Usually the value (C * l + c) is called the rangefinding distance. Let us denote the difference (D" - S) by ΔD and call it the correction for reduction to the horizon, then

S = D" – ∆D (4.1.3.8)

ΔD = D" * Sin 2 ν (4.1.3.9)

The angle ν is measured by the vertical circle of the theodolite; where the correction ΔD is not taken into account. The accuracy of measuring distances with a filament rangefinder is usually estimated by a relative error from 1/100 to 1/300.

In addition to the usual filament rangefinder, there are optical dual-image rangefinders.

4.2 Design features and principle of operation

In a pulse light rangefinder, the source of radiation is most often a laser, the radiation of which is formed in the form of short pulses. To measure slowly changing distances, single pulses are used; for rapidly changing distances, a pulsed radiation mode is used. Solid-state lasers allow the repetition rate of radiation pulses up to 50-100 Hz, semiconductor - up to 104-105 Hz. The formation of short radiation pulses in solid-state lasers is carried out by mechanical, electro-optical or acousto-optical shutters or their combinations. Injection lasers are controlled by the injection current.

In phase light rangefinders, incandescent or gas-light lamps, LEDs and almost all types of lasers are used as light sources. An optical rangefinder with LEDs provides a range of up to 2-5 km, with gas lasers when working with optical reflectors on an object - up to 100 km, and with diffuse reflection from objects - up to 0.8 km; similarly, the Optical Rangefinder with Semiconductor Lasers provides a range of 15 and 0.3 km. In phase light-range radiation, it is modulated by interference, acousto-optical, and electro-optical modulators. Electro-optical modulators based on resonator and waveguide microwave structures are used in microwave phase optical rangefinders.

In pulse light range finders, photodiodes are usually used as a photodetector; in phase light range finders, photodetection is carried out by photomultipliers. The sensitivity of the photoreceiving path of an optical rangefinder can be increased by several orders of magnitude by using optical heterodyning. The operating range of such an optical rangefinder is limited by the coherence length) of the transmitting laser, while it is possible to register movements and vibrations of objects up to 0.2 km.

The measurement of time intervals is most often carried out by the counting-pulse method.

5. Conclusion

Rangefinder - is the best device for measuring distance over long distances. Now laser rangefinders are used in ground military equipment and in aviation and navy. A number of rangefinders have been adopted by many armies of the world. Also, the rangefinder has become an indispensable part of hunting, which makes it unique and very useful.

6. Bibliographic list

1. Gerasimov F.Ya., Govorukhin A.M. Brief topographic and geodetic dictionary-reference book, 1968; M Nedra

Elementary course of optics and rangefinders, Voenizdat, 1938, 136 p.

Military optical-mechanical devices, Oboronprom, 1940, 263 p.

4. Internet shop of optics. Principles of operation of a laser rangefinder. URL: http://www.optics4you.ru/article5.html

Electronic version of the textbook in the form of hypertext
in the discipline "Geodesy". URL: http://cheapset.od.ua/4_3_2.html range finder Abstract >> Geology

K and f + d = c , we get D = K n + c , where K is the coefficient rangefinder and c is a constant rangefinder. Rice. 8.4. Thread rangefinder: a) - a network of threads; b) - scheme for determining ... levels. Device technical levels. Depending on the devices applied...

The creation of laser pulse rangefinders was one of the first applications of lasers in military technology. Measuring the range to the target is a typical task of artillery firing, which has long been solved by optical means, but with insufficient accuracy, and required bulky instruments and highly qualified and trained personnel. Radar made it possible to measure the range to targets by measuring the delay time of the radio pulse reflected from the target. The principle of operation of quantum rangefinders is based on measuring the time of passage of a light signal to a target and back, and is as follows: a powerful short-duration radiation pulse generated by an optical quantum generator (OCG) of the rangefinder is formed by the optical system and directed to the target, the range to which must be measured. The radiation pulse reflected from the target, having passed the optical system, falls on the rangefinder photodetector. The moment of radiation of the probing and the moments of receipt of the reflected signals are recorded by the trigger unit (BZ) and the photodetector (FPU), which generate electrical signals to start and stop the time interval meter (IVI). IVI measures the time interval between the leading edges of the emitted and reflected pulses. The range to the target is proportional to this interval and is determined by the formula, where is the range to the target, m; - speed of light in the atmosphere, m/s; - measured time interval, s.

The measurement result in meters is displayed on a digital indicator in the field of view of the left eyepiece of the rangefinder. To create an optical analog of a radar, only a powerful pulsed light source with a good beam directivity was lacking. The Q-switched solid-state laser was an excellent solution to this problem. The first Soviet laser rangefinders were developed in the mid-1960s by defense industry enterprises that had vast experience in creating optical instruments. Research Institute "Pole" at that time was still being formed. The first work of the institute in this direction was the development of a ruby ​​element 5.5 x 75 for a laser rangefinder created by TsNIIAG. The development was successfully completed in 1970 with the creation of such an element with customer acceptance. Department of the Institute, headed by V.M. Krivtsun, in the same years he developed ruby ​​lasers for space trajectory measurements and optical location of the Moon. A large backlog was accumulated in the creation of solid-state lasers for field use and their docking with the customer's equipment. Using our laser, the Research Institute of Space Instrumentation (Director - L.I. Gusev, Chief Designer of the complex - V.D. Shargorodsky) carried out successful optical location of Lunokhods delivered by Soviet spacecraft to the surface of the Moon in 1972-73. At the same time, the location of Lunokhods on the Moon was also determined by scanning a laser beam. In the 70s, these works were continued by the development of a neodymium garnet location laser (Kandela, Chief Designer G. M. Zverev, leading performers M. B. Zhitkova, V. V. Shulzhenko, V. P. Myznikov). Previously intended for use in aviation, this laser was successfully used to equip and operate for many years a wide network of laser stations for satellite trajectory measurements at Maidanak in the Pamirs, the Far East, the Crimea and Kazakhstan. At present, the 3rd generation of lasers developed at the Polyus Research Institute (I.V. Vasiliev, S.V. Zinoviev, and others) are already operating at these stations. The experience of developing lasers for military use made it possible to start developing laser rangefinders directly at Polyus. The initiative to develop rangefinders at the institute, shown by G.M. Zverev, who in 1970 headed the complex department of the institute for the development of active and nonlinear elements, solid-state lasers and devices based on them, was actively supported by the director M.F. Stelmakh and the industry leadership.

In the early 1970s, the institute was the only one in the country that possessed the technology for growing single crystals and electro-optical switches, which made it possible to create devices of significantly smaller mass and dimensions. Thus, the typical pump energy of a ruby ​​laser for a rangefinder was 200 J, and for a garnet laser only 10 J. The laser pulse duration was also reduced several times, which increased the measurement accuracy. The first development of the device began in the late 60s under the leadership of V.M. Krivtsun. As a layout idea, he chose a scheme with a single lens, using an electro-optical element as a switch between input and output channels. This scheme was similar to that of a radar with an antenna switch. A laser based on a YAG:Nd crystal was chosen, which made it possible to obtain a sufficient output energy of IR radiation (20 mJ). V.M. Krivtsun failed to complete the development of the device, he fell seriously ill and died in 1971. A.G. had to complete the development. Ershov, who previously developed tunable lasers for scientific research. The optical scheme had to be changed to a classic one with separate transmitter and receiver lenses, since the combined scheme could not cope with the illumination of the photodetector by a powerful transmitter pulse. Successful full-scale tests of the first R&D sample of the Contrast-2 device took place in June 1971. The Military Topographical Administration acted as the customer for the R&D of the country's first laser rangefinder. The development was completed in a very short time. Already in 1974, the quantum topographic rangefinder KTD-1 (Fig. 1.2.1) was accepted for supply and transferred to serial production at the Tantal plant in Saratov.

Rice. 1.2.1

With this development, the talent of the Chief Designer A.G. was fully manifested. Ershov, who managed to correctly choose the main technical solutions of the device, organize the development of its blocks and assemblies, new functional elements by adjacent departments. The device had a range of up to 20 km with an error of less than 1.7 m. The KTD-1 range finder was mass-produced for many years in Saratov, as well as at the VTU plant in Moscow. For the period 1974 - 1980. the troops received more than 1000 such devices. They have been successfully used in solving many problems of military and civil topography. A number of new elements would be developed at the institute for laser rangefinders. In materials science departments under the leadership of V.M. Garmash and V.P. Klyuev, high-quality active elements were created from yttrium aluminum garnet and yttrium aluminate with neodymium. N.B. Angert, V.A. Pashkov and A.M. Onishchenko created electro-optical shutters made of lithium niobate, which have no analogues in the world. In the division of P.A. Tsetlin created passive dye shutters. On this elemental base, E.M. Shvom and N.S. Ustimenko developed small-sized laser emitters ILTI-201 and IZ-60 for small-sized rangefinders. At the same time, promising photodetectors based on a germanium avalanche photodiode were developed in the department of A.V. Ievsky V.A. Afanasiev and M.M. Zemlyanov. The first small-sized (in the form of binoculars) laser rangefinder LDI-3 (Fig. 1.2.2) was tested at the test site in 1977, and in 1980. State tests were successfully carried out.

Rice. 1.2.2

The device was mastered serially at the Ulyanovsk Radiotube Plant. In 1982, State comparative tests of the LDI-3 device and the 1D13 device, developed by the Kazan Optical and Mechanical Plant by order of the Moscow Region, were carried out. For a number of reasons, the commission tried to give preference to the KOMZ device, however, the impeccable operation of the rangefinder of the Polyus Research Institute during the tests led to the fact that both devices were recommended for acceptance for supply and mass production: 1D13 for the ground forces and LDI-3 for the Navy. In just 10 years, several thousand LDI-3 devices and its further modification LDI-3-1 were put into production. In the late 80s, A.G. Ershov developed latest version rangefinder-binoculars LDI-3-1M with a mass of less than 1.3 kg. She turned out latest work talented Chief Designer, who passed away early in 1989.

The line of developments for WTU, started by KTD-1, was continued with new devices. As a result of creative cooperation between the Polyus Research Institute and the 29th Scientific Research Institute of the Military and Technical Cooperation, a rangefinder was created - the gyrotheodolite DGT-1 ("Captain"), which measures distances to objects on the ground with an error of less than 1 m and angular coordinates - more precisely 20 arcsec. In 1986, a laser rangefinder KTD-2-2 was developed and accepted for supply - a nozzle on theodolite (Fig. 1.2.3).

Rice. 1.2.3

In the 1970s, fundamentally new quantum rangefinders (DAK-1, DAK-2, 1D5, etc.) entered service. They made it possible to determine the coordinates of objects (targets) and shell explosions in a short time with high accuracy. To be convinced of the superiority of their characteristics, it is enough to compare the median errors in measuring the range: DS-1 - 1.5 percent. (with an observation range of up to 3 km), DAK - 10 m (regardless of range). The use of rangefinders made it possible to significantly reduce the detection time of targets, increase the likelihood of their opening day and night, and thereby increase the effectiveness of artillery fire. Artillery quantum rangefinders are one of the main means of reconnaissance in artillery units. In addition to the main purpose - range measurement, quantum rangefinders make it possible to solve the problems of conducting visual reconnaissance of the terrain and the enemy, correcting fire, measuring horizontal and vertical angles, topographic and geodetic binding of elements of the battle formations of artillery units. In addition, the 1D15 laser rangefinder-target designator makes it possible to illuminate targets with laser radiation with semi-active guidance when performing fire missions with high-precision munitions with homing heads. Currently, the following types of quantum rangefinders are in service: , artillery quantum rangefinder DAK-2 (1D11) and its modifications DAK-2M-1 (1D11M-1) and DAK-2M-2 (1D11M-2), laser reconnaissance device LPR-1 (1D13), rangefinder-designator 1D15.