Military history, weapons, old and military maps. Fixed Angle Thread Rangefinder
Quantum rangefinders.
4.1 The principle of operation of quantum rangefinders.
The principle of operation of quantum rangefinders is based on measuring the time of passage of a light pulse (signal) to the target and back.
Determination of polar coordinates of points;
Maintenance of zeroing targets (creating benchmarks);
Study of the area.
Rice. 13. DAK-2M in combat position.
1- transceiver; 2- angle measuring platform (UIP); 3- tripod; 4- cable;
5- battery 21NKBN-3.5.
4.2.2. Basic performance characteristics DAK-2M
|
№№ |
Characteristic name |
Indicators |
|
1 |
2 |
3 |
|
1 |
Range and measurements, M: Minimum; Maximum; Up to targets with angular dimensions ≥2′ |
8000 |
|
2 |
Maximum measurement error, m, no more |
10 |
|
3 |
Working mode: Number of range measurements in a series; Measurement frequency; Break between series of measurements, min; Time of readiness for distance measurement after power-on, sec., no more; The time spent in the readiness mode for range measurement after pressing the START button, min., no more. |
1 measurement in 5-7 seconds 30 1 |
|
4 |
Number of measurements (pulses 0 without recharging the battery, not less than |
300 |
|
5 |
Pointing angle range: |
± 4-50 |
|
6 |
Angle measurement accuracy, d.c. |
±0-01 |
|
7 |
Optical characteristics: Increase, times; Field of view, deg.; Periscopicity, mm. |
6 |
|
8 |
Food: Voltage of standard battery 21NKBN-3.5, v; Voltage of non-standard batteries, V; Voltage of the on-board network, V, (with the inclusion of a battery with a voltage of 22-29 V in the buffer. In this case, voltage fluctuations and ripple should not exceed ± 0.9 V). |
22-29 |
|
9 |
Rangefinder weight: In combat position without stowage box and spare battery, kg; In the stowed position (set weight), kg |
|
|
10 |
Calculation, pers. |
2 |
4.2.3. Set (composition) DAK-2M(Fig. 13)
Transceiver.
Angle measuring platform (UIP).
Tripod.
Cable.
Rechargeable battery 21NKBN-3.5.
Single set of spare parts.
Stacking box.
A set of technical documentation (form, TO and IE).
Device constituent parts DAK-2M.
Transceiver- is intended for conducting optical (visual) reconnaissance, measuring vertical angles, generating a light probing pulse, receiving and registering probing and reflected from local objects (targets) light pulses, converting them into voltage pulses, generating pulses to start and stop the time interval meter ( IVI).
a) The main blocks and nodes of the transceiver are:
optical quantum generator (OQG);
photodetector device (FPU);
amplifier FPU (UFPU);
launch block;
time interval meter (IVI);
direct current converter (DCC);
ignition unit (BP);
direct current converter (PPN);
control unit (BU);
block of capacitors (BC);
arrester;
head;
binocular;
mechanism for counting vertical angles.
WGC designed to form a powerful narrowly directed radiation pulse. The physical basis of the laser action is the amplification of light by stimulated emission. To do this, the laser uses an active element and an optical pumping system.
FPU is designed to receive pulses reflected from the target (reflected light pulses), their processing and amplification. To amplify them, the FPU has a preliminary photodetector amplifier (UPFPU).
UFPU is designed to amplify and process pulses coming from the UPFPU, as well as to generate stopping pulses for IVI.
BZ is designed to generate the trigger pulses of the TIE and FPA and delay the start pulse of the TIE relative to the laser radiation pulse for the time required for the stopping pulses to pass through the UPFPU and FPA.
IVI is designed to measure the time interval between the fronts of the triggering and one of the three stopping pulses. Converting it to numerical value range in meters and indication of the distance to the target, as well as indication of the number of targets in the radiation range.
TTX IVI:
Range of measured ranges - 30 - 97500 m;
Resolution according to D - not worse than 3 m;
The minimum value of the measured range can be set:
1050 m ± 75 m
2025 m ± 75 m
3000m±75m
IVI measures the range to one of three targets within the range of measured ranges at the choice of operators.
PPT is intended for a block of pump capacitors and storage capacitors of the power supply unit, as well as for issuing a stabilized supply voltage to the control unit.
BP is designed to form a high-voltage pulse that ionizes the discharge gap of a pulsed pump lamp.
PPN is designed to output a stabilized supply voltage to the UPFPU, UFPU, BZ and stabilize the rotational speed of the electric motor of the opto-mechanical shutter.
BOO is designed to control the operation of units and units of the range finder in a given sequence and control the voltage level of the power source.
BC designed to store charge.
Discharger designed to remove the charge from the capacitors by shorting them to the body of the transceiver.
Head designed to accommodate a sighting mirror. At the top of the head there is a slot for mounting a sighting pole. A lens hood is attached to protect the head glass.
Binocular is a part of the reticle and is designed to observe the area, aim at the target, as well as to read the indications of the range indicators, the target counter, indicate the readiness of the range finder to measure the range and the state of the battery.
Vertical angle reference mechanism
is intended for counting and indication of measured vertical angles.
b) Optical scheme of the transceiver(fig.14)
consists of: - transmitter channel;
The optical channels of the receiver and the reticle partially coincide (they have a common objective and a dichroic mirror).
Transmitter channel designed to create a powerful monochromatic pulse of short duration and small angular divergence of the beam and send it in the direction of the target.
Its composition: - OGK (mirror, flash lamp, active element-rod, reflector, prism);
Telescopic system of Galileo - to reduce the angular divergence of radiation.
Receiver channel
designed to receive the radiation pulse reflected from the target and create the required level of light energy on the FPU photodiode. Its composition: - lens; - dichroic mirror.
Rice. fourteen. Optical scheme of the transceiver.
Left: 1- telescope; 2- mirror; 3- active element; 4- reflector; 5- flash lamp ISP-600; 6- prism; 7.8 - mirrors; 9- eyepiece.
Connector "POWER";
PSA connector (for connecting a calculating device);
Drying valve.
On the head of the transceiver are:
Drying valve;
Socket for sighting pole.
TARGET switch is designed to measure the distance to the first or second or third target located in the radiation range.
GATE switch is designed to set the minimum ranges 200, 400, 1000, 2000, 3000, closer than which the range measurement is impossible. The indicated minimum ranges correspond to the positions of the "STROBING" switch:
400 m - "0.4"
1000 m - "1"
2000 m - "2"
3000 m - "3"
When the switch position "STROBING" is set to position "3", the sensitivity of the photodetector to reflected signals (pulses) is increased.
Rice. fifteen. DAK-2M controls.
1 - drying cartridge; 2-node grid illumination; 3-switch LIGHT FILTER; 4-switch PURPOSE; 5.13-bracket; 6-control panel; 7-button MEASUREMENT; 8-button START; 9-knob BRIGHTNESS; 10-toggle switch BACKLIGHT; 11-toggle switch POWER; 12-pin PARAMETER CONTROL ; 14-switch STROBING; 15-level; 16-reflector; 17-scale mechanism for reading vertical angles.
Rice. 16. DAK-2M controls.
Left: 1-strap; 2-fuse; 3-plug LANTERN; 4-control panel; 5-ring; 6-connector PSA; 7,11-rings; 8-plug power supply; 9-button CALIBRATION; 10-button CHECK VOLT.
Right: 1-socket; 2-head; 3.9-drying valve; 4-body; 5-eyecup; 6-binocular; 7-handle vertical guidance; 8-bracket.
Angle measuring platform (UIP)
UIP designed for mounting and leveling the transceiver, turning it around a vertical axis and measuring horizontal and directional angles.
Composition of the UIP(fig.17)
clamping device;
Device;
Ball level.
The UIP is mounted on a tripod and fastened through the threaded bushing with a set screw.
Rice. 17. Angle measuring platform DAK-2M.
1-handle for layering the worm; 2-level; 3-handle; 4 clamping device; 5-base with wheel; 6-drum; 7-handle of precise guidance; 8-nut; 9-limb; 10-handle; 11-threaded sleeve; 12-base; 13-lifting screw.
Tripod designed to install the transceiver to install the transceiver in the working position at the required height. The tripod consists of a table, three paired rods and three retractable legs. The rods are interconnected by a hinge and a clamping device in which the retractable leg is clamped with a screw. The hinges are attached to the table with overlays.
Battery 21 NKBN-3.5 is designed to power rangefinder blocks with direct current through a cable.
NK - nickel-cadmium battery system;
B - battery type - panelless;
H - technological feature of the manufacture of plates - spread;
3.5 - nominal battery capacity in ampere-hours.
- buttons "MEASUREMENT 1" and "MEASUREMENT 2" - for measuring the distance to the first or second target located in the radiation range.
Rice. twenty. Controls of LPR-1.
Top: 1-casing; 2-handle; 3-index; 4-buttons MEASUREMENT1 and MEASUREMENT 2; 5-strap; 6-panel; 7-toggle switch handle LIGHT; 8 eyepiece sight; 9 screws; 10 eyepiece sight; 11-fork; 12-battery compartment cover; 13-toggle switch handle ON-OFF.
Bottom: 1 drying cartridge; 2-rmen; 3-bracket; 4-lid.
On the back and bottom sides:
Bracket for mounting the device on the UID bracket or on the bracket - adapter when installing the device on the compass;
drying cartridge;
Viewfinder lens;
telescope lens;
Connector with a cover for connecting the cable of remote buttons.
Rice. 21. Field of view of the LPR-1 indicator
1-range indicator; 2,5,6-dicimal dots; 3-readiness indicator (green); 4-battery discharge indicator (red).
Note . In the absence of a reflected pulse, zeros (00000) are displayed in all digits of the range indicator. In the absence of a probing pulse, zeros are displayed in all digits of the range indicator and a decimal point is displayed in the third digit (Fig. 21. position 5).
If there are several targets in the radiation target (in the break of the goniometric grid) during the measurement, the decimal point lights up in the low-order digit of the range indicator (Fig. 21. position 2).
If it is impossible to remove shielding interference beyond the break of the goniometric grid, and also in cases where interference is not observed, and the decimal point in the low (right) digit of the range indicator is lit, point the rangefinder at the target so that the target overlaps, possibly large area rupture of the goniometric grid. Measure the range, then set the minimum range limit knob to a range value that exceeds the measured value by 50-100 meters and measure the range again. Repeat these steps until the decimal point in the most significant digit goes out.
When zeros are displayed in all digits of the range indicator and the decimal point is lit in the most significant digit (left) (Fig.21. position 6) of the indicator, it is necessary to reduce the minimum measured range by turning the minimum range limiting knob until a reliable measurement result is obtained.
2. Angle measuring device
(Fig.22.).
Designed for installation of a rangefinder, aiming a rangefinder and measuring horizontal, vertical and directional angles
Optical reconnaissance devices.
Electron-optical devices.
ARTILLERY QUANTUM RANGER
Artillery quantum rangefinder 1D11 with a target selection device is designed to measure the range to fixed and moving targets, local objects and shell explosions, correct ground artillery fire, maintain visual
reconnaissance of the area, measurement of vertical and horizontal angles of targets, topographic and geodetic binding of elements of artillery combat formations.
The range finder provides distance measurement to targets (tank, car, etc.) with a probability of reliable measurement of at least 0.9 (if they are confidently detected in the optical sight and in the absence of foreign objects in the beam alignment).
The rangefinder operates under the following climatic conditions: atmospheric pressure of at least 460 mm Hg. Art., relative humidity up to 98%, temperature ± 35 ° C. The main performance characteristics of 1D11
Increase. . . ................. 8.7 x
Line of sight. . . ................. 1-00(6°)
Periscopicity .............. 330 mm
Distance measurement accuracy. . ......... 5-10 m
Quantity of measurements of range without replacement of the rechargeable battery - at least 300
Ready time of the rangefinder for operation after switching on general nutrition - no more than 10 s
The 1D11 rangefinder kit includes a transceiver, an angle measuring platform, a tripod, a rechargeable battery, a cable, a single set of spare parts and accessories, and a stowage box.
The principle of operation of the rangefinder is based on measuring the time it takes for a light signal to travel to a target and back.
A powerful radiation pulse of short duration, generated by an optical quantum generator, is directed by a forming optical system to the target, the range to which must be measured. The radiation pulse reflected from the target, having passed the optical system, falls on the rangefinder photodetector. The moment of emission of the probing pulse and the moment of arrival
The reflection of the reflected pulse is recorded by the trigger unit and the photodetector, which generate electrical signals to start and stop the time interval meter.
The time interval meter measures the time interval between the fronts of the emitted and reflected pulses. The range to the target, proportional to this interval, is determined by the formula
D=st/2,
where With - speed of light in the atmosphere, m/s;
t- measured interval, s.
The measurement result in meters is displayed on a digital indicator entered in the field of view of the left eyepiece.
Preparing the rangefinder for operation includes installation, leveling, orientation and performance testing
The installation of the rangefinder is carried out in this order. They choose a place for observation, place the tripod (with one of the legs pointing towards observation) above the chosen point so that the tripod table is approximately horizontal. An angle measuring platform (API) is installed on the tripod table and securely fixed with a set screw.
After placing the tripod, a rough leveling is carried out on the ball level with an accuracy of half a division of the level scale by changing the length of the legs of the tripod.
Then, the transceiver is installed with the shank into the seat of the UIP (previously moving the handle of the UIP clamping device counterclockwise to the stop) and, turning the transceiver, ensure that the fixing stops of the shank enter the corresponding grooves of the clamping device, after which the handle of the UIP is turned clockwise until the transceiver is securely fastened. Hang up the battery
battery on a tripod or install it to the right of the tripod, taking into account the possibility of turning the transceiver connected by a cable to the battery. Connect the cable to the transceiver and the battery, having previously removed the plugs from the corresponding connectors.
Accurate leveling on a cylindrical level is carried out in this order. The worm removal handle is pulled down to the stop and the transceiver is turned in such a way that the axis of the cylindrical level is parallel to the straight line passing through the axes of the two UIP lifting screws. The level bubble is brought to the middle, while simultaneously rotating the UIP lifting screws in opposite directions. The transceiver is rotated by 90° and, by turning the third lifting screw, the level bubble is again brought to the middle, the leveling accuracy is checked by smoothly turning the transceiver by 180°, and the leveling is repeated if, when turning, the cylindrical level bubble moves away from the middle by more than half a division.
Checking the rangefinder performance includes monitoring the battery voltage, monitoring the functioning of the time interval meter (IVI) and checking the functioning of the rangefinder.
The battery voltage is monitored in this order. Turn on the POWER switch and press the CHECK button. eg. If the red indicator light (on the right) lights up in the field of view of the left eyepiece, the battery voltage is too low and the battery needs to be replaced.
The control of the functioning of the time interval meter is carried out on three calibration channels in the following order: set the STROBING switch to position 0, press the START button. the PURPOSE switch is sequentially set to position 1,
2, 3 and after each switching, press the CALIBRATION button when the red signal dot (on the left) lights up in the field of view of the left eyepiece.
When you press the CALIBRATION button, the indicator readings must be within the limits indicated in the table
After the checks, the PURPOSE switch is set to position 1.
The operation of the rangefinder is checked by a control measurement of the range to the target, the distance to which is within the scope of the rangefinder and is known in advance with an error of no more than 2 m. If the range is not known exactly, then the distance to the same target is measured three times.
The measurement results should not differ from the known value or differ from each other by a value not exceeding the error indicated in the form.
Before orienting the rangefinder, the eyepiece of the sight is set to sharpen the image. If necessary, install a sighting pole on the head of the transceiver and fix it with a screw.
Orientation of the rangefinder, as a rule, is carried out according to the directional angle of the orientation direction. The order of orientation is as follows: point the transceiver at a landmark, the directional angle for which is known, set it on the limb (on a black scale) and on the scale
accurate readings, a reading equal to the value of the directional angle to the landmark, clamp the screws for fixing the limb and the nut for fixing the scale of accurate readings,
Measurement of horizontal angles is carried out using the monocular grid (up to 0-70), the limb scale (as the difference between the readings on the right and left points), the limb scale with the initial setting of 0 to the right point and subsequent marking on the left point. Vertical angles are measured using the monocular reticle (up to 0-35) and the target elevation angle mechanism scale.
Range measurement with a 1D11 rangefinder is carried out as follows.
Observing through the right eyepiece and rotating the handwheels of the horizontal and vertical aiming, point the grid mark at the target, turn on the POWER switch, press the START button and after the signal dot lights up, press the MEASUREMENT button without knocking down the aiming. After that, the reading of the measured range and the number of targets in the beam alignment are taken in the left eyepiece.
If the MEASUREMENT button has not been pressed within 65-90 s. from the moment the readiness indicator lights up, the rangefinder automatically turns off. The measured range is displayed in the left eyepiece for 5-9 s.
If there are several targets (up to three) in the beam alignment, the rangefinder, at his choice, can measure the range to any of them. The rangefinder measures the distance to the first target when the TARGET switch is set to position 1. To measure the range to the second or third target, the TARGET switch is set to position 2 or 3, respectively. In addition, the rangefinder provides stepwise distance gating in range. The rangefinder by setting the STROBING switch to positions 0, 0, 4, 1, 2 and 3 can start measuring the range from distances of 200, 400, 1000, 2000 and 3000 m from the rangefinder, respectively.
After ten such measurements, a three-minute break must be taken.
The reliability of the measurement results depends on the correct choice of the aiming point on the object, since the power of the reflected beam depends on the effective reflection area of the target and its reflection coefficient. Therefore, when measuring, you need to choose a point in the center of the visible area.
If it is impossible to measure the range directly to the target, measure the range to a local object located in close proximity from the target.
To transfer the rangefinder from the combat position to the marching position, turn off the POWER and LIGHT switch, record the readings of the impulse counter, disconnect the power cable first from the battery, and then from the transceiver and put it in the pocket of the packing box. Remove the sighting pole, lantern from the transceiver and place them in the packing box. Close the plugs and the socket for the pole with plugs. Pull the handle of the UIP clamping device counterclockwise until it stops. Remove the transceiver from the UIP, put it in the packing box and fix it in it. Place the battery in the storage box. Remove the UIP from the tripod, put it in the packing box and fix it in it. Fold the tripod, cleaning it of dirt, and fix it on the stacking box.
A variety of quantum rangefinders is laser reconnaissance device(LPR). A laser reconnaissance device in relation to an artillery quantum rangefinder has a number of advantages: dimensions and weight are smaller, more power sources, the ability to work "by hand". At the same time, the main tactical and technical characteristics of the APR are worse compared to the DAK, during combat work its stability is significantly lower, the device does not have a periscope. In addition, its active measuring channel is subject to flare from a bright light source.
Safety requirements when working with the LPR, the procedure and rules for orienting the device according to the directional angle or compass, checking its performance do not differ from similar actions with the DAC.
The device can be powered by a built-in battery, an on-board network of wheeled or tracked vehicles, or non-standard batteries. In this case, when operating from other sources (except for the built-in battery), a protective device is installed instead of the built-in battery.
The transition conductor is connected to a current source, observing the polarity.
To transfer the decision maker to a combat position:
to work "by hand" remove the device from the case, connect the selected (or existing) power source, check the operation of the device;
to work with a tripod from the kit, set the tripod at the selected place according to general rules(it is possible to fix the tripod cup in any wooden object);
install the angle measuring device (UIU) with a ball bearing in the cup; insert the ICD clamp into the T - shaped groove of the device bracket until it stops and fix the device by turning the handle of the clamping device;
to work with a periscope artillery compass, a compass is installed for work, leveled and oriented; mounted on the monocular compass transition crowns
matte: insert the clamp of the bracket into the T - shaped groove of the bracket of the device until it stops and fix the device.
In the stowed position, the LPR is transferred in the reverse order.
To measure the range, press the MEASUREMENT-1 button, after the ready indicator lights up, the button is released and the range indicator is read.
The rangefinder is aimed at the target so that it covers the largest possible area of the grid gap. If more than one target hits the radiation target, then the distance to the second deli is measured by pressing the MEASUREMENT-2 button.
The measured value is displayed in the range indicator for 3-5 s.
Horizontal and vertical angles are measured according to the rules common for goniometers. Angles not exceeding 0-80 div. ang., can be estimated from the goniometric grid with an accuracy of no higher than 0-05 div. ang.
To determine the polar coordinates of the target, the distance to it is measured and the azimuth reading is taken. Rectangular coordinates are determined using the coordinate converter included in the kit, or by any other known method.
When working in conditions of strong background noise (the target is located against the backdrop of a bright sky or surfaces lit by a bright sun, etc.), the diaphragm stored in the case cover is inserted into the lens barrel. At negative temperatures from -30°C and below, the diaphragm is not installed.
When measuring the distance to remote, small-sized or moving targets, for convenience, a cable of remote buttons is connected to the plug on the rangefinder panel.
Detailed description set of the device, the procedure for combat work and maintenance of the device are given in the Memo to the calculation attached to each set.
FEDERAL AGENCY FOR EDUCATION
State educational institution of higher professional education
MOSCOW STATE INSTITUTE OF RADIO ENGINEERING ELECTRONICS AND AUTOMATION (TECHNICAL UNIVERSITY)
COURSE WORK
by discipline
"Physical foundations of measurements"
Theme: Rangefinder
№ student group performer - ES-2-08
Surname of the I. O. of the performer - Prusakov A. A.
Surname and name of the head - Rusanov K. E.
Moscow 2010
Introduction ____________________________________________________________3
2. Types of rangefinders ______________________________________________5
3. Laser rangefinder _____________________________________________6
3.1. Physical basis of measurements and principle of operation _________________8
3.2 Design features and principle of operation. Types and application ____12
4. Optical rangefinder __________________________________________19
4.1. Physical bases of measurements and principle of operation ________________21
4.1.2 Fixed Angle Thread Distance Meter ____________________________23
4.1.3 Measuring the slope distance with a filament distance meter __________25
4.2 Design features and principle of operation ___________________________________27
5. Conclusion ____________________________________________________________29
6. Bibliographic list ______________________________________30
1. Introduction
Rangefinder- a device designed to determine the distance from the observer to the object. Used in geodesy, for focusing in photography, in sights of weapons, bombing systems, etc.
Geodesy- branch of production associated with measurements on the ground. It is an integral part of construction work. With the help of geodesy, projects of buildings and structures are transferred from paper to nature with millimeter accuracy, volumes of materials are calculated, and compliance with the geometric parameters of structures is monitored. It also finds application in mining for calculating blasting and rock volumes.
The main tasks of geodesy:
Among the many tasks of geodesy, one can single out “long-term tasks” and “tasks for the coming years”.
Long term tasks include:
determination of the figure, size and gravitational field of the Earth;
distribution of a single coordinate system to the territory of a separate state, continent and the whole Earth as a whole;
performing measurements on the surface of the earth;
depiction of land surface areas on topographic maps and plans;
study of global displacements of the earth's crust blocks.
Currently, the main tasks for the coming years in Russia are as follows:
creation of state and local cadastres: land real estate, water forest, urban, etc.;
topographic and geodetic support for the delimitation (definition) and demarcation (designation) of the state border of Russia;
development and implementation of standards in the field of digital mapping;
creation of digital and electronic maps and their data banks;
development of a concept and a state program for the widespread transition to satellite methods for autonomous determination of coordinates;
creation of a comprehensive national atlas of Russia and others.
Laser ranging is one of the first areas of practical application of lasers in foreign military equipment. The first experiments date back to 1961, and now laser range finders are used both in ground military equipment (artillery, such), and in aviation (range finders, altimeters, target designators), and in the navy. This technique has passed combat trials in Vietnam and the Middle East. Currently, a number of rangefinders have been adopted by many armies of the world.
Rice. 2 - Laser sight-rangefinder. First used on T72A
2. Types of rangefinders
Rangefinder devices are divided into active and passive:
sound rangefinder
light rangefinder
laser rangefinder
rangefinders using an optical parallax rangefinder camera)
rangefinders that use object-to-pattern matching
active:
passive:
The principle of operation of active type rangefinders is to measure the time it takes for the signal sent by the rangefinder to travel the distance to the object and back. The speed of signal propagation (the speed of light or sound) is assumed to be known.
The measurement of distances with passive type rangefinders is based on determining the height h of an isosceles triangle ABC, for example, using the known side AB = l (base) and the opposite acute angle b (the so-called parallax angle). For small angles b (expressed in radians)
One of the quantities, l or b, is usually constant, and the other is variable (measured). On this basis, rangefinders with a constant angle and rangefinders with a constant base are distinguished.
3. Laser rangefinder
Laser range finder - a device for measuring distances using a laser beam.
It is widely used in engineering geodesy, topographic survey, military navigation, gastronomic research, and photography.
A laser rangefinder is a device consisting of a pulsed laser radiation detector. By measuring the time it takes the beam to travel to the reflector and back, and knowing the value of the speed of light, it is possible to calculate the distance between the laser and the reflecting object.
Fig.1 Modern models of laser rangefinders.
electromagnetic radiation to propagate at a constant speed makes it possible to determine the distance to the object. So, with the pulse method of ranging, the following ratio is used:
where L- the distance to the object, the speed of light in vacuum, the refractive index of the medium in which the radiation propagates, t is the time it takes for the impulse to reach the target and back.
Consideration of this relation shows that the potential accuracy of distance measurement is determined by the accuracy of measurement of the time of passage of the energy pulse to the object and back. It is clear that the shorter the pulse, the better.
3.1. Physical bases of measurements and principle of operation
The task of determining the distance between the range finder and the target is reduced to measuring the corresponding time interval between the probing signal and the signal, the reflection from the target. There are three methods for measuring range, depending on what kind of modulation of laser radiation is used in the rangefinder: pulse, phase or phase-pulse. The essence of the pulse method of ranging is that a probing pulse is sent to the object, which also starts a time counter in the rangefinder. When the pulse reflected by the object reaches the rangefinder, it stops the counter. According to the time interval, the distance to the object is automatically displayed in front of the operator. Let us estimate the accuracy of such a ranging method if it is known that the accuracy of measuring the time interval between the probing and reflected signals corresponds to 10 V -9 s. Since we can assume that the speed of light is 3 * 10 cm / s, we get an error in changing the distance of about 30 cm. Experts believe that this is quite enough to solve a number of practical problems.
With the phase ranging method, laser radiation is modulated according to a sinusoidal law. In this case, the radiation intensity varies within a significant range. Depending on the distance to the object, the phase of the signal that fell on the object changes. The signal reflected from the object will arrive at the receiving device also with a certain phase, depending on the distance. Let us estimate the error of a phase rangefinder suitable for field operation. Experts say that it is not difficult for the operator to determine the phase with an error of no more than one degree. If the modulation frequency of the laser radiation is 10 MHz, then the distance measurement error will be about 5 cm.
According to the principle of operation, rangefinders are divided into two main groups, geometric and physical types.
Fig.2 The principle of operation of the rangefinder
The first group consists of geometric rangefinders. The measurement of distances with a range finder of this type is based on determining the height h of an isosceles triangle ABC (Fig. 3), for example, using the known side AB = I (base) and the opposite acute angle. One of the quantities, I, is usually a constant, and the other is a variable (measured). On this basis, rangefinders with a constant angle and rangefinders with a constant base are distinguished. A fixed angle rangefinder is a telescope with two parallel filaments in the field of view, and a portable rail with equidistant divisions serves as the base. The distance to the base measured by the rangefinder is proportional to the number of divisions of the staff visible through the telescope between the threads. Many geodetic instruments (theodolites, levels, etc.) work according to this principle. The relative error of the filament rangefinder is 0.3-1%. More complex optical rangefinders with a fixed base are built on the principle of superimposing images of an object constructed by beams that have passed through various optical systems of the rangefinder. Alignment is performed using an optical compensator located in one of the optical systems, and the measurement result is read on a special scale. Monocular rangefinders with a base of 3-10 cm are widely used as photographic rangefinders. The error of optical rangefinders with a constant base is less than 0.1% of the measured distance.
The principle of operation of a physical type rangefinder is to measure the time it takes the signal sent by the rangefinder to travel the distance to an object and back. The ability of electromagnetic radiation to propagate at a constant speed makes it possible to determine the distance to an object. Distinguish pulse and phase methods of distance measurement.
With the pulse method, a probing pulse is sent to the object, which starts a time counter in the rangefinder. When the pulse reflected by the object returns to the rangefinder, it stops the counter. By the time interval (delay of the reflected pulse), using the built-in microprocessor, the distance to the object is determined:
where: L is the distance to the object, c is the speed of radiation propagation, t is the time it takes the pulse to reach the target and back.
Rice. 3 - The principle of operation of the geometric type rangefinder
AB - base, h - measured distance
With the phase method, the radiation is modulated according to a sinusoidal law using a modulator (an electro-optical crystal that changes its parameters under the influence of an electrical signal). The reflected radiation enters the photodetector, where the modulating signal is extracted. Depending on the distance to the object, the phase of the reflected signal changes relative to the phase of the signal in the modulator. By measuring the phase difference, the distance to the object is measured.
3.2 Design features and principle of operation. Types and application
The first XM-23 laser rangefinder was tested and adopted by the armies. It is designed for use in advanced observation posts. ground forces. The radiation source in it is a ruby laser with an output power of 2.5 W and a pulse duration of 30 ns. Integrated circuits are widely used in the design of the rangefinder. The emitter, receiver and optical elements are mounted in a monoblock, which has scales for accurately reporting the azimuth and elevation angle of the target. The rangefinder is powered by a 24V nickel-cadmium battery that provides 100 range measurements without recharging. In a different artillery rangefinder, also adopted by the armies, there is a device for simultaneously determining the range of up to four targets lying on the same straight line by successive gating of distances of 200,600,1000, 2000 and 3000m.
Interesting Swedish laser rangefinder. It is intended for use in fire control systems of onboard naval and coastal artillery. The design of the rangefinder is particularly durable, which allows it to be used in difficult conditions. The rangefinder can be paired, if necessary, with an image intensifier or a television sight. The operating mode of the rangefinder provides for either measurements every 2s. within 20s. and with a pause between a series of measurements for 20 s. or every 4s. for a long time. Digital range indicators work in such a way that when one of the indicators gives the last measured range, the other four previous distance measurements are stored in the memory of the other.
A very successful laser rangefinder is the LP-4. It has an optical-mechanical shutter as a Q-switch. The receiving part of the rangefinder is also the sight of the operator. The diameter of the input optical system is 70mm. The receiver is a portable photodiode, the sensitivity of which has a maximum value at a wavelength of 1.06 μm. The meter is equipped with a range strobing circuit, which operates according to the operator's setting from 200 to 3000 m. In the scheme of the optical sight, a protective filter is placed in front of the eyepiece to protect the operator's eye from the effects of his laser when receiving the reflected pulse. The emitter and receiver are mounted in one housing. The elevation angle of the target is determined within + 25 degrees. The battery provides 150 distance measurements without recharging, its weight is only 1 kg. The rangefinder has been tested and purchased in a number of countries such as - Canada, Sweden, Denmark, Italy, Australia. In addition, the British Ministry of Defense signed a contract for the supply of a modified LP-4 rangefinder weighing 4.4 kg to the British army.
Portable laser rangefinders are designed for infantry units and forward artillery observers. One of these rangefinders is made in the form of binoculars. The source of radiation and the receiver are mounted in a common housing, with a monocular optical sight of six times magnification, in the field of view of which there is a light panel of LEDs, well distinguishable both at night and during the day. The laser uses an yttrium aluminum garnet as a radiation source, with a Q-switch on lithium niobate. This provides a peak power of 1.5 MW. The receiving part uses a dual avalanche photodetector with a broadband low noise amplifier, which makes it possible to detect short pulses with a low power of only 10 V -9 W. False signals reflected from nearby objects that are in the barrel with the target are eliminated using a range gating circuit. The power source is a small-sized rechargeable battery that provides 250 measurements without recharging. The electronic units of the rangefinder are made on integrated and hybrid circuits, which made it possible to increase the mass of the rangefinder together with the power source to 2 kg.
The installation of laser rangefinders on tanks immediately interested foreign developers of military weapons. This is due to the fact that on a tank it is possible to introduce a rangefinder into the tank's fire control system, thereby increasing its combat qualities. For this, the AN / VVS-1 rangefinder was developed for the M60A tank. It did not differ in design from a laser artillery rangefinder on a ruby, however, in addition to issuing range data on a digital display in the tank's fire control system calculator. In this case, the range measurement can be performed both by the gunner and the tank commander. Rangefinder operation mode - 15 measurements per minute for one hour. Foreign press reports that a more advanced rangefinder, developed later, has range limits from 200 to 4700m. with an accuracy of + 10 m, and a computer connected to the tank's fire control system, where, together with other data, 9 more types of ammunition data are processed. This, according to the developers, makes it possible to hit the target with the first shot. The fire control system of a tank gun has an analog, considered earlier, as a rangefinder, but it includes seven more sensory sensors and an optical sight. The name of the Kobeld installation. The press reports that it provides a high probability of hitting the target, and despite the complexity of this installation, the ballistics mechanism switch to the position corresponding to the selected type of shot, and then press the laser rangefinder button. When firing at a moving target, the gunner additionally lowers the fire control interlock switch so that the signal from the turret traverse speed sensor when tracking the target goes behind the tachometer to the computing device, helping to generate a signal from the institution. The laser rangefinder, which is part of the Kobeld system, allows you to measure the range simultaneously to two targets located in the alignment. The system is fast-acting, which allows you to shoot in the shortest possible time.
An analysis of the graphs shows that the use of a system with a laser rangefinder and a computer provides a probability of hitting a target close to the calculated one. The graphs also show how much more likely it is to hit a moving target. If for stationary targets the probability of hitting when using a laser system compared to the probability of hitting when using a system with a stereo rangefinder does not make a big difference at a distance of about 1000m, and is felt only at a distance of 1500m or more, then for moving targets the gain is clear. It can be seen that the probability of hitting a moving target when using a laser system, compared with the probability of hitting when using a system with a stereo range finder already at a distance of 100 m, increases by more than 3.5 times, and at a distance of 2000 m., where the system with a stereo range finder becomes practically ineffective, laser the system provides a probability of defeat from the first shot of about 0.3.
In armies, in addition to artillery and tanks, laser rangefinders are used in systems where it is required to determine the range with high accuracy in a short period of time. So, in the press it was reported that an automatic system for tracking air targets and measuring the distance to them was developed. The system allows accurate measurement of azimuth, elevation and range. Data can be recorded on magnetic tape and processed on a computer. The system has a small size and weight and is placed on a mobile van. The system includes a laser operating in the infrared range. Infrared TV camera receiver, TV monitor, servo-wire tracking mirror, digital display and recorder. The neodymium glass laser device operates in Q-switched mode and emits energy at a wavelength of 1.06 µm. The radiation power is 1 MW per pulse with a duration of 25 ns and a pulse repetition rate of 100 Hz. The divergence of the laser beam is 10 mrad. Tracking channels use various types of photodetectors. The receiver uses a silicon LED. In the tracking channel - a grating consisting of four photodiodes, with the help of which a mismatch signal is generated when the target is shifted away from the axis of sight in azimuth and elevation. The signal from each receiver is fed to a video amplifier with a logarithmic response and a dynamic range of 60 dB. The minimum threshold signal at which the system monitors the target is 5 * 10V-8W. The target tracking mirror is driven in azimuth and elevation by servomotors. The tracking system allows you to determine the location of air targets at a distance of up to 19 km. while the accuracy of target tracking, determined experimentally, is 0.1 mrad. in azimuth and 0.2 mrad in elevation of the target. Distance measurement accuracy + 15 cm.
Laser rangefinders on ruby and neodymium glass provide distance measurement to stationary or slowly moving objects, since the pulse repetition rate is low. Not more than one hertz. If it is necessary to measure short distances, but with a higher frequency of measurement cycles, then phase rangefinders with a semiconductor laser emitter are used. As a rule, they use gallium arsenide as a source. Here is the characteristic of one of the rangefinders: the output power is 6.5 W per pulse, the duration of which is 0.2 μs, and the pulse repetition rate is 20 kHz. The laser beam divergence is 350*160 mrad i.e. resembles a petal. If necessary, the angular divergence of the beam can be reduced to 2 mrad. The receiver consists of an optical system, and the focal plane of which is a diaphragm that limits the field of view of the receiver to the desired size. Collimation is performed by a short focus lens located behind the diaphragm. The working wavelength is 0.902 microns, and the range is from 0 to 400m. The press reports that these characteristics have been significantly improved in later designs. So, for example, a laser rangefinder with a range of 1500m has already been developed. and distance measurement accuracy + 30m. This rangefinder has a repetition rate of 12.5 kHz with a pulse duration of 1 μs. Another rangefinder developed in the USA has a range of 30 to 6400m. The pulse power is 100W, and the pulse repetition rate is 1000 Hz.
Since several types of rangefinders are used, there has been a tendency to unify laser systems in the form of separate modules. This simplifies their assembly, as well as the replacement of individual modules during operation. According to experts, the modular design of the laser rangefinder provides maximum reliability and maintainability in the field.
The emitter module consists of a rod, a pump lamp, an illuminator, a high-voltage transformer, and resonator mirrors. quality modulator. As a radiation source, neodymium glass or aluminum-sodium garnet is usually used, which ensures the operation of the rangefinder without a cooling system. All these elements of the head are placed in a rigid cylindrical body. Precise machining of the seats on both ends of the cylindrical body of the head allows for quick replacement and installation without additional adjustment, which ensures ease of maintenance and repair. For the initial adjustment of the optical system, a reference mirror is used, mounted on a carefully machined surface of the head, perpendicular to the axis of the cylindrical body. A diffusion-type illuminator consists of two cylinders entering one into the other, between the walls of which there is a layer of magnesium oxide. The Q-switch is designed for continuous stable operation or pulsed with fast starts. the main data of the unified head are as follows: wavelength - 1.06 μm, pump energy - 25 J, output pulse energy - 0.2 J, pulse duration 25 ns, pulse repetition rate 0.33 Hz for 12 s, operation with a frequency of 1 Hz is allowed) , the divergence angle is 2 mrad. Due to the high sensitivity to internal noise, the photodiode, preamplifier and power supply are housed in the same housing with the most dense arrangement possible, and in some models it is all made in a single compact unit. This provides a sensitivity of the order of 5 * 10 in -8 watts.
The amplifier has a threshold circuit that is activated at the moment when the pulse reaches half of the maximum amplitude, which helps to improve the accuracy of the range finder, because it reduces the effect of fluctuations in the amplitude of the incoming pulse. The start and stop signals are generated by the same photodetector and follow the same path, which eliminates systematic ranging errors. The optical system consists of an afocal telescope to reduce the divergence of the laser beam and a focusing lens for the photodetector. Photodiodes have an active area diameter of 50, 100, and 200 µm. A significant reduction in size is facilitated by the fact that the receiving and transmitting optical systems are combined, and the central part is used to form the radiation of the transmitter, and the peripheral part is used to receive the signal reflected from the target.
4. Optical rangefinder
Optical rangefinders is a generalized name for a group of rangefinders with visual aiming at an object (target), the operation of which is based on the use of the laws of geometric (beam) optics. Optical rangefinders are common: with a constant angle and a remote base (for example, a filament rangefinder, which is supplied by many geodetic instruments - theodolites, levels, etc.); with a constant internal base - monocular (for example, a photographic rangefinder) and binocular (stereoscopic rangefinders).
Optical range finder (light range finder) - a device for measuring distances by the time it takes optical radiation (light) to travel the measured distance. An optical rangefinder contains a source of optical radiation, a device for controlling its parameters, a transmitting and receiving system, a photodetector and a device for measuring time intervals. The optical rangefinder is divided into pulse and phase, depending on the methods for determining the time it takes the radiation to travel the distance from the object and back.
Rice. 4 - Modern optical rangefinder
Fig. 5 - Optical rangefinder type "Seagull"
In rangefinders, it is not the length of the line itself that is measured, but some other value, relative to which the length of the line is a function.
As previously mentioned, 3 types of rangefinders are used in geodesy:
optical (rangefinders of geometric type),
electro-optical (light range finders),
radio engineering (radio rangefinders).
4.1. Physical bases of measurements and principle of operation
Rice. 6 Geometric scheme of optical rangefinders
Let it be required to find the distance AB. We place an optical rangefinder at point A, and a rail at point B perpendicular to the line AB.
Denote: l - segment of the rail GM,
φ - the angle at which this segment is visible from point A.
From triangle AGB we have:
D=1/2*ctg(φ/2) (4.1.1)
D = l * сtg(φ) (4.1.2)
Usually the angle φ is small (up to 1 o), and by applying the expansion of the function Ctgφ in a series, formula (4.1.1) can be reduced to the form (4.1.2). On the right side of these formulas, there are two arguments with respect to which the distance D is a function. If one of the arguments has a constant value, then to find the distance D it is enough to measure only one value. Depending on what value - φ or l - is taken constant, there are rangefinders with a constant angle and rangefinders with a constant basis.
In a rangefinder with a constant angle, the segment l is measured, and the angle φ is constant; it is called the diastimometric angle.
In rangefinders with a constant basis, the angle φ is measured, which is called the parallactic angle; the segment l has a constant known length and is called a basis.
4.1.2 Constant angle thread distance meter
In the grid of threads of telescopes, as a rule, there are two additional horizontal threads located on both sides of the center of the grid of threads at equal distances from it; these are rangefinder threads (Fig. 7).
Let's draw the path of rays passing through the rangefinder filaments in the Kepler tube with external focusing. The device is installed above point A; at point B there is a rail installed perpendicular to the sight line of the pipe. Find the distance between points A and B.
Rice. 7 - Rangefinder threads
Let's construct the course of rays from the points m and g of the range-finding threads. Rays from points m and g, going parallel to the optical axis, after refraction on the objective lens, will cross this axis at the front focus point F and fall into points M and G of the rail. The distance from point A to point B will be:
D = l/2 * Ctg(φ/2) + frev + d (4.1.2.1)
where d is the distance from the center of the lens to the axis of rotation of the theodolite;
f about - focal length of the lens;
l is the length of the segment MG on the rail.
Denote (f about + d) through c, and the value 1/2*Ctg φ/2 - through C, then
D = C * l + c. (4.1.2.2)
The constant C is called the rangefinder coefficient. From Dm "OF we have:
Ctg φ / 2 \u003d ОF / m "O; m" O \u003d p / 2 (4.1.2.3)
Ctg φ/2 = (fob*2)/p, (4.1.2.4)
where p is the distance between the rangefinding threads. Next we write:
C \u003d f about / p. (4.1.2.5)
The rangefinder coefficient is equal to the ratio of the focal length of the lens to the distance between the rangefinder filaments. Usually, the coefficient C is taken equal to 100, then Ctg φ / 2 = 200 and φ = 34.38 ". At C = 100 and fob = 200 mm, the distance between the threads is 2 mm.
4.1.3 Measuring the slope distance with a filament distance meter
Let the sight line of the pipe JK when measuring the distance AB has an angle of inclination ν, and the segment l is measured along the rail (Fig. 8). If the rail were installed perpendicular to the pipe sight line, then the slope distance would be:
D = l 0 * C + c (4.1.3.1)
l 0 = l*Cos ν (4.1.3.2)
D = C*l*Cosν + c. (4.1.3.3)
The horizontal distance of the line S is determined from Δ JKE:
S = D*Cosν (4.1.3.4)
S= C*l*Cos2v + c*Cosv. (4.1.3.5)
rice. 8 - Measuring the slant distance with a filament rangefinder
For the convenience of calculations, we take the second term equal to c*Cos2ν ; since the c value is small (about 30 cm), such a replacement will not introduce a noticeable error in the calculations. Then
S = (C * l + c) * Cos 2 ν (4.1.3.6)
S = D"* Cos2v (4.1.3.7)
Usually the value (C * l + c) is called the rangefinding distance. Let us denote the difference (D" - S) by ΔD and call it the correction for reduction to the horizon, then
S = D" – ∆D (4.1.3.8)
ΔD = D" * Sin 2 ν (4.1.3.9)
The angle ν is measured by the vertical circle of the theodolite; where the correction ΔD is not taken into account. The accuracy of measuring distances with a filament rangefinder is usually estimated by a relative error from 1/100 to 1/300.
In addition to the usual filament rangefinder, there are optical double-image rangefinders.
4.2 Design features and principle of operation
In a pulse light rangefinder, the source of radiation is most often a laser, the radiation of which is formed in the form of short pulses. To measure slowly changing distances, single pulses are used; for rapidly changing distances, a pulsed radiation mode is used. Solid-state lasers allow the repetition rate of radiation pulses up to 50-100 Hz, semiconductor - up to 104-105 Hz. The formation of short radiation pulses in solid-state lasers is carried out by mechanical, electro-optical or acousto-optical shutters or their combinations. Injection lasers are controlled by the injection current.
In phase light rangefinders, incandescent or gas-light lamps, LEDs and almost all types of lasers are used as light sources. An optical rangefinder with LEDs provides a range of up to 2-5 km, with gas lasers when working with optical reflectors on an object - up to 100 km, and with diffuse reflection from objects - up to 0.8 km; similarly, the Optical Rangefinder with Semiconductor Lasers provides a range of 15 and 0.3 km. In phase light-range radiation, it is modulated by interference, acousto-optical, and electro-optical modulators. Electro-optical modulators based on resonator and waveguide microwave structures are used in microwave phase optical rangefinders.
In pulse light range finders, photodiodes are usually used as a photodetector; in phase light range finders, photodetection is carried out by photomultipliers. The sensitivity of the photoreceiving path of an optical rangefinder can be increased by several orders of magnitude by using optical heterodyning. The operating range of such an optical rangefinder is limited by the coherence length) of the transmitting laser, while it is possible to register movements and vibrations of objects up to 0.2 km.
The measurement of time intervals is most often carried out by the counting-pulse method.
5. Conclusion
Rangefinder - is the best device for measuring distance over long distances. Now laser rangefinders are also used in ground military equipment both in aviation and navy. A number of rangefinders have been adopted by many armies of the world. Also, the rangefinder has become an indispensable part of hunting, which makes it unique and very useful.
6. Bibliographic list
1. Gerasimov F.Ya., Govorukhin A.M. Brief topographic and geodetic dictionary-reference book, 1968; M Nedra
Elementary course of optics and rangefinders, Voenizdat, 1938, 136 p.
Military optical-mechanical devices, Oboronprom, 1940, 263 p.
4. Internet shop of optics. Principles of operation of a laser rangefinder. URL: http://www.optics4you.ru/article5.html
Electronic version of the textbook in the form of hypertext
in the discipline "Geodesy". URL: http://cheapset.od.ua/4_3_2.html range finder Abstract >> Geology
K and f + d = c , we get D = K n + c , where K is the coefficient rangefinder and c is a constant rangefinder. Rice. 8.4. Thread rangefinder: a) - a network of threads; b) - scheme for determining ... levels. Device technical levels. Depending on the devices applied...
Complete set: with spare parts, tripod, covers, tape measure and other accessories for the device. With "hammer-sickle" branding on the surface. The date of the last repair in the instructions is 1960! This is a standard military-grade anti-aircraft rangefinder in excellent condition (storage conservation). The optics are clean, the product is without mechanical damage. For operation, the rangefinder is mounted on a tripod, which consists of a holder and a tripod (all included). In a wooden box for transportation and carrying. The size of the box is 117x27x17 cm.
This optical device can decorate the interior of a study or office, giving a modern interior a retro entourage, and also serve practically - to monitor a potential enemy (neighbors in the country, for example) ...
MANAGEMENT
for
INFANTRY FIGHTER
Chapter 12
MACHINE GUN SERVICE
P the gunner is entrusted tested weapons- Maxim machine gun.
With accurate and merciless machine-gun fire, the undaunted fighters of the Red Army smashed the White Guard gangs in battles during civil war in the USSR. The Red Army is equipped with many models of machine guns, but the Maxim machine gun remains the most powerful of them. This was experienced by the White Poles, samurai and White Finns.
The machine gun shoots with a lead jet, throwing out 600 bullets per minute. This terrible jet destroys the attacking enemy infantry and cavalry and stops their advance.
Machine gun fire only prepares for success, completes his bayonet strike.
Don't forget for a moment that the machine gun provides the infantry with fire and helps them accomplish their mission.
MACHINE GUN CREW
FROM a tank machine gun is serviced by a machine gun chief and six fighters: an observer - a rangefinder, a gunner, an assistant gunner, two cartridge carriers, a rider.
Each machine gunner must be able to perform the duties of any machine gun fighter in case he has to replace him in battle.
The head of the machine gun is replaced by a gunner.
Each heavy machine gun carries a combat set of cartridges, 12 boxes of machine-gun belts, two spare barrels, one box of spare parts, one box of accessories, three cans for water and grease, and an optical machine gun sight. If the machine gun is assigned to fire at air targets, then it has an anti-aircraft tripod and an anti-aircraft sight.
To take up a firing position, a command is given (approximately): "Direction to a green bush! On skating rinks! (with a wheelbarrow, on hands). To position!"
The machine gun is delivered by the method specified in the command to the position. To install the machine gun, choose a flat area with solid ground (turf is best). If there is no such site, prepare it with the help of a entrenching tool. In loose or rocky soil, place linings from the material that is at hand (felt, overcoat, etc.) under the rollers of the machine gun. Set the machine gun straight.
If one wheel is higher, dig up the soil, but do not add it. After placing the machine gun in position, prepare it for firing.
Gunner! Set the barrel of the machine horizontally (by eye). For this right hand pull the handle of the stoppers towards you, and with your left hand, by the handle of the butt plate, move the body of the machine gun along the arcs of the machine so that the barrel is horizontal. After that, secure the machine gun: drop the handle of the stoppers and slightly move the body of the machine gun back and forth. Then set the body of the machine gun horizontally. To do this, select the desired hole of the rods, acting with the help of mechanisms for coarse and fine pickup.
Having installed the machine gun, direct the body of the machine gun in the direction of fire.
Raise the sight post or, when shooting with a telescopic sight, remove the cap from the panorama.
Gunner's Assistant! Remove the cap of the muzzle, open the steam vent, screw on the steam vent and take the end of it into the ground or lower it into a vessel with water. Place the cartridge box to the right of the receiver, flip the cover to the right, prepare the tape for feeding and open the shield shutter.
The gunner lies down behind the machine gun, legs slightly spread to the sides, turning the soles of his feet and pressing them to the ground. He raises his head as he sees fit. The elbows rest on the armrests (roll, turf, boxes, etc.), which should not put pressure on the trunk of the machine.
Gunner's Assistant! Lie down to the right of the machine gun so that it is convenient to work with a machine gun.
The remaining fighters of the machine-gun crew are located depending on the terrain and situation, so that they can better fulfill their duties (Fig. 205).
For anti-aircraft shooting from a universal machine arr. 1931 the machine gun is pre-discharged, all the mechanisms of the machine are fixed, and the optical sight with traction and the shield are removed. An anti-aircraft sight is mounted on a machine gun.
On command "By Airplane":
Gunner! Press the latch of the middle leg of the tripod with your left hand, grasp the coulter ring and pull out all three legs at the same time; turn the front leg of the tripod to the right by the heel, and the left leg to the left; take them out of the grip with the middle leg and spread them to the sides, then stand behind the machine gun and grab the butt plate handle with both hands.
Gunner's Assistant! Stand in front of the machine gun, grab the casing closer to the front edge of the box and, together with the gunner, lift the machine gun up and tilt it onto the rear leg of the machine; then pull back on the locking pin of the travel connecting fork and separate the travel from the machine table by turning it forward and downward.
Gunner! Release the coarse vertical aiming clamps and disengage the machine gun from the sector of the right swivel post.
Gunner's Assistant! Press the swivel latch down and release the swivel head.
In order to get the possibility of circular fire, the gunner rotates the machine gun on the table for half a circle (180 ").
For firing from an anti-aircraft machine-gun tripod mod. 1928 one of the cartridge carriers is assigned to aim.
On command "By Airplane" assistant gunner unscrews the nut of the connecting bolt.
Gunner! Remove the connecting bolt and give it to the assistant gunner.
Gunner's Assistant! Take out the bolt of fine aiming.
Gunner! Take the body of the machine gun and bring it to the tripod.
Gunner's Assistant! Take the connecting bolt from the gunner and insert it into the eyes of the machine.
First ammo carrier! Move the tripod to the place indicated by the commander, and unfasten the strap that tightens its legs.
Aiming! Loosen the clamping bolt of the tripod center tube coupling clamp.
Ammo carrier and aiming! Stretch your tripod.
Aiming! Tighten the clamping bolt of the clamp of the center tube of the tripod.
The squad leader unscrews the nut of the connecting bolt on the tripod swivel, removes the bolt and passes it to the first cartridge carrier.
Gunner! Now put the machine gun on the swivel, and take the aiming machine gun from the gunner.
First ammo carrier! Insert the connecting bolt.
Aiming! Tighten the nut of the connecting bolt, insert the fine aiming bolt into the machine gun eyes, take out the split pin of the butt plate and reinsert it through the breastplate eyes.
The machine-gun crew is left to install a sight on the machine gun.
ON THE MACHINE GUN AND REMOVING IT
The sight is mounted on a machine gun when switching from a ground machine to an anti-aircraft tripod. Commander's command:
Gunner! Take the rear sight out of the case, unscrew the locking screws of the base and attach the base of the sight to the right side of the ground sight post so that the holes in the sight post and the rear sight base match. Pass the set screws through the bore of the sight base and ground sight post and secure them.
Remove the aiming ruler with the adjusting device and clamping clip from the case and put the clip on the machine gun box, inserting the axis of the sight indicator (eccentric) into the hole in the leash.
Gunner's Assistant! Set the sight pointer to the "0" division and, when the gunner puts the clip on the machine gun box, screw the connecting screw of the sighting line into the hole in the upper part of the clamp.
Remove the front sight from the case, insert it into the stand and sight holder tube and secure it.
Aiming! Remove the clamp from the case and, having unscrewed the nuts of the tightening screws, separate the upper and lower clamps. Then, together with the assistant gunner, put the clamp on the machine gun casing so that the front part of the upper clamp coincides with the line notched on the casing, and fasten the clamp (screw the nuts of the caps), making sure that the clamp is not knocked off; screw in the clamping screw.
The yoke and rear sight mounted on the machine gun do not interfere with shooting with a ground sight, so they are removed only when cleaning the machine gun. This makes it possible to reduce the installation time of the anti-aircraft sight and its alignment.
The anti-aircraft sight must be installed on the machine gun within 10 seconds.
To remove the sight, unscrew the connecting screw of the sighting line and separate the end of it from the collar;
set the eccentric pointer to zero division;
release the clamping screw of the clip and lift the clip up, at the same time removing the axis of the sight pointer from the hole in the leash;
Separate the front sight from the carriage by releasing the clamp and, removing the holder leg from the carriage socket, carefully place the sight into the box.
For automatic firing, the machine gun is loaded as follows:
Gunner's Assistant! With your left hand, push the tip of the tape into the receiver.
Gunner! Take the end of the tape with your left hand and, holding it with your thumb from above, pull the tape to the left and a little forward to failure; push the handle forward with your right hand and hold it in this position; pull the tape to the left again; drop the handle, take your hand to the side and forward; push the handle forward a second time, pull the tape to the left again, drop the handle.
To fire single shots, the gunner loads the machine guns for automatic firing, after which he feeds the handle forward once and throws it.
2. AIMING THE MACHINE GUN
Gunner! When aiming the machine gun at the target on the open sight with the thumb of your right hand, slide the brake bar and rotate the handwheel of the sight until the upper edge of the collar aligns with the desired division of the aim bar (Fig. 206). In old-style sights, the pointer in the form of a white dash in the clamp window is combined with the desired division of the aiming bar (Fig. 206).
After that, slide the brake bar into place and install the rear sight by turning the head of the lead screw with your left hand until the rear sight pointer aligns with the desired scale division on the tube.
It remains to point the machine gun at the target. To do this, unfasten the fine vertical aiming mechanism with your right hand, and the scattering mechanism with your left hand. With your right hand, turn the handwheel of the fine aiming mechanism and, lightly hitting the butt plate with the palm of your left hand, aim the machine gun at the target.
With correct aiming, the top of the front sight should be in the middle of the rear sight slot and flush with its edges, touching the aiming point from below.
Gunner! When aiming, give your eyes 12-15 centimeters from the rear sight slot, close your left eye or keep both eyes open.
He pointed the machine gun, - fix the fine aiming mechanisms with the right, and the scattering one - with the left hand.
When shooting at a point and with dispersion along the front, a fine vertical aiming mechanism is fixed.
When shooting with dispersion in depth, only the scattering mechanism is fixed.
Gunner's Assistant!(After the gunner has fixed the fine aiming mechanism and indicated the division of the ring.) Install the aiming ring (Fig. 206). To do this, take the aiming ring with the thumb and forefinger of your right hand and rotate it until the desired division is aligned with the indication in the sleeve window.
The setting of the ring always corresponds to the setting of the scope (unless a special command has been given).
Gunner's Assistant! If the fire is fired with simultaneous dispersion along the front and in depth, cover the flywheel with your left hand from below and report to the squad leader or raise your hand to head level. The gun is ready to fire.
Gunner! At the same time, check the installation of the aiming ring and the aiming.
Before installing an optical sight, you need to make sure that all its scales are in the zero position, and the 30-00 goniometric scale is opposite the pointer, then remove the safety cap from the connecting rod finger and put it in the box.
Gunner! To install the sight, move the handle of the connecting rod clamp up, release the clamp of the connecting rod pin;
put the sight with the tubular axis of the body on the connecting rod pin so that the connecting rod pin freely enters the opening of the mounting collar between the adjusting screws, and screw the rear adjusting screw until it fails, but without undue force;
fasten the sight, for which the connecting rod finger clamp handle is turned down until it fails;
fasten the locknut of the rear adjusting screw with a special wrench, remove the leather cap from the panorama.
Then, making sure that division 30-00 of the goniometric scale of the panorama is against the pointer, set the goniometer and the drum handwheel until the desired division is aligned with the pointer (Fig. 207).
After that, make sure that the scale of the drum for setting the elevation angles of the target and the scale of the drum for setting the aiming angles are zero divisions against their pointers; set the aiming angle for the bullet mod. 1908 or 1930 and the level by rotating the target elevation scale drum: "more" - on the inner scale, "less" - on the outer one.
Now pull the clutch with a rubber eyecup back and aim the machine gun at the desired point so that the top of the triangle of aiming threads (optical front sight) is aligned with the aiming point (Fig. 208). 
The assistant gunner does the same as when aiming with an open sight.
P ri automatic fire from easel machine gun individual bullets that fly in the same direction form a machine-gun sheaf of shots.
When shooting at a point with fixed mechanisms, the dimensions of the sheaf in height, width and range are the smallest. When firing from a machine gun with detached mechanisms, the size of the sheaf of shots increases, especially in range, or in height, if firing at a vertical target.
The size of the sheaf of shots depends on the degree of serviceability of the mechanisms of the machine and the connecting bolts.
The distance of the terrain from the point of impact of the nearest bullet to the point of impact of the farthest bullet is called depth of dispersion of bullets.
If the terrain at the target increases, the depth of dispersion of bullets decreases, if it decreases, it increases.
The most profitable thing is to "hit the enemy with the core of bullets."
Gunner! To fire in bursts, raise the fuse, push the trigger lever forward to failure and hold it until the machine gun releases a burst of (10-30) rounds; then quickly, if necessary, correct the aiming and again fire a burst of (10-30) rounds, so do this until the prescribed number of rounds is used up.
The length of each burst is adjusted by the gunner by ear (without an accurate count of cartridges).
In a training setting, the assigned number of rounds can be separated in the tape in advance.
When shooting, do not press the butt plate handles either up or down. Do not correct shooting (changing the range) by pressing the knobs. With a dead move, which is always in the machine gun, shooting over your troops and raising the butt plate handles, you can fire at your own troops.
Gunner's Assistant! While shooting, support the tape with your left hand and guide it into the receiver. If the shooting stops involuntarily, raise your hand and say loudly: "Hold!" At the same time, look at the position of the handle and indicate to the gunner (approximately): "The handle is in a vertical position", "The handle is in its place", etc. Help the gunner eliminate the delay.
The gunner, when firing single shots, after each shot, gives the handle forward and throws it.
Shooting at a point with dispersion along the front and in depth is carried out by automatic fire. The same fire is firing. When shooting at a point, the sheaf of fire is very narrow. Therefore, if the distance is incorrectly determined and atmospheric conditions are not accurately taken into account, the sheaf may miss the target. To avoid this, it is necessary to increase the sheaf of fire by dispersion along the front and in depth.
When administering fire to the point the gunner slightly unfastens the scattering mechanism and makes sure that the aiming line does not deviate from the aiming point.
When administering fixed fire to the point the gunner, after aiming the machine gun, fixes the scattering mechanism and the fine vertical aiming mechanism.
When administering fire with dispersion along the front the gunner releases the dispersion mechanism, aims the machine gun at the left or right edge of the target and, opening fire, smoothly, without jerking, without pressing the butt plate handles, drives the machine gun to the right or left within the specified limits, monitoring dispersion along the aiming line; the fine vertical aiming mechanism is fixed at the same time.
The normal dispersion rate is such that there are at least two bullets per meter of front.
If the target is not visible or poorly visible, the gunner limits the scattering to local objects between which the target is located (for example, from a bush to a road).
Gunner! When shooting with dispersion at the angle indicated by the commander, first find the limits of dispersion using a machine-gun ruler: mark with your thumbnail the division of the goniometric scale on the ruler indicated by the team; remove the ruler 50 centimeters from the eye, direct the zero division of the scale to the aiming point and notice on the ground a point that falls opposite the marked division on the ruler.
The dispersion limits are also determined by: 1) an optical sight: set the panorama drum (and if necessary, its rotary head) from its main installation to the angle indicated by the commander to the side reverse direction scattering; note the object on the ground, then reinstall the drum (swivel head) on the main installation; 2) in its entirety, moving it by the indicated number of divisions and noticing the limits of dispersion on the ground.
Gunner! Firing with dispersion in depth, at the end of the machine gun aiming, without fixing the fine vertical aiming mechanism, grasp the handwheel from below with your right hand and after the first shot, begin to rotate the handwheel.
Gunner's Assistant! Follow the aiming ring for the accuracy of dispersion within the specified limits.
The rate of dispersion in depth is one division of the aiming ring in one second.
When firing with simultaneous dispersion along the front, and the assistant gunner - along the ring in depth. In this case, the rate of two scatterings can be increased to two divisions of the ring per second.
The machine gun can be fired with automatic fire continuously or in bursts, or single shots. Shooting with single shots is used only for training and in order to warm up the frozen liquid and the barrel of the machine gun.
Scattering in depth is carried out along the ring within the required limits, for example, from 11 to 12. In this case, the sheaf of shots will move in depth by 100 meters. Dispersion to a depth of 100 meters is useful when firing at shallow or small targets. Large dispersion in depth, for example, at 200 meters (along the ring from 11 to 13 approximately), is used as an exception, since in this case the depth of dispersion of the bullets greatly increases and the validity of the fire decreases.
Broad and deep targets should be fired upon, scattering fire simultaneously along the front and in depth.
Sighting is carried out by fire at a point with fixed mechanisms. Zeroing in on targets in combat will be an exception. Targets in combat will hide behind cover very quickly. Therefore, they must be hit by immediately opening fire to kill, setting the sight according to the distance to the target, taking into account atmospheric influences(wind, temperature, pressure).
When automatic fire is being fired and the place where the bullets hit is clearly visible, corrections need to be made, for example: "flight 50 meters - give half a division back along the ring", "undershoot 100 meters - give one forward along the ring", etc.
In all cases, strive to direct the fire of your machine gun to the flank or obliquely. Such fire gives the greatest results in combat.
FIRE CORRECTION
It is especially important to continuously monitor the fall of bullets, how the living target behaves - the enemy. With proper observation, you can correct an error in choosing a sight, taking into account the influence of temperature and wind, and a gunner's error.
The most important thing is to establish where the core of the shots lies. Shooting cannot be corrected for individual random bullets.
On damp ground, in grass, with heavy artillery shelling of the target area, it is impossible to observe the fall of bullets. Then you should observe how the enemy behaves. With well-aimed fire, you can notice the dead and wounded, the enemy will lie down, stop moving and fire, the columns will be deployed, etc.
Report your results as follows:
1) the core covered the target - report: "Good";
2) bullets lay closer to the target - report: "Undershot 100" (approximately in meters);
3) bullets lay further than the target - report: "Flight 50" (approximately in meters);
4) bullets fell to the right or left of the target - report: "To the right (or left) 15" (in goniometer divisions).
When flying - reduce the sight, when short-range - increase. In case of lateral deviation of the bullets, correct the installation of the rear sight (goniometer).
Remember! "The bullet follows the whole thing" (goniometer): rear sight to the left - bullets to the left, rear sight to the right - bullets to the right.
anti-aircraft sight arr. 1929
For firing at an air target, it is necessary to accurately determine the distance and speed of the target and, accordingly, set the front sight on the scale of the aiming line, and the aiming mechanism according to the firing distance;
select the reticle ring according to the speed of the target and set the reticle to a horizontal or vertical position, depending on the elevation angle of the target.
What should the gunner, assistant gunner and aimer do, opening fire on command?
Aiming! Being to the left of the machine gun, move the carriage of the front sight along the sighting line to the division corresponding to the commanded range, and give the sight, depending on the elevation angle of the target, a horizontal or vertical position.
The setting of the front viewfinder in a horizontal or vertical position is carried out by rearranging the plumb bob; to do this, pull the plumb line to the side and turn it 90 *.
Shooting at an aircraft with the front sight horizontal is possible only if the target visibility angle (target elevation angle) is at least 10*. In cases where the aircraft is moving at an angle of less than 10 degrees to the target, aim with the sight in the vertical position.
At the same time, set the sight on the course of the target, i.e. parallel to the direction of its movement in relation to the plane of fire.
The aimer must have sufficient skill to quickly determine the elevation angle of the target by eye.
Gunner's Assistant! Being on the right of the machine gun, set the sight pointer according to the shooting distance, direct the tape into the receiver and during the shooting, follow the correct setting of the sight. When shooting at a target moving at distances not exceeding 1000 meters, set the sight pointer to division 10. When shooting at distances over 1000 meters, move the sight pointer to the division corresponding to the distance specified in the command.
Gunner! Aim the machine gun at the target by aiming it through the rear sight diopter and the corresponding point of the front sight, depending on the direction and speed of the target.
If the plane dives onto a machine gun or leaves after a dive, then, regardless of its speed, aim through the center of the rear sight diopter and the center (hub hole) of the front sight directly at the head of the aircraft (Fig. 209);
if the aircraft passes overhead in the direction of the machine gun, aim through the center of the diopter and the intersection of the vertical spoke of the front sight with the ring corresponding to the speed of the target, at the bottom or in front of the sight, depending on the vertical or horizontal position of the ring (Fig. 210); if the plane goes overhead in the direction from the machine gun, aim through the center of the diopter and the intersection of the vertical spoke of the front sight with the ring corresponding to the speed of the target, in the upper or rear part of the sight, depending on the vertical or horizontal position of the ring (Fig. 211);
if the aircraft passes along the front or at an angle to it, aim through the center of the diopter and the point selected on the corresponding ring of the front sight so that the extended line of the target passes through the center of the front sight and the head of the aircraft touches the outer edge of the ring (Fig. 212 and 213);
if the speed of the aircraft does not correspond to any of the rings of the front sight, then aim at an imaginary point between the corresponding rings.
To determine the distance to aircraft with an eye meter, you can use the following data (for normal vision):
from 1200 meters - you can distinguish identification marks,
from 800 meters - wheels and chassis are visible,
from 600 meters - stretch marks are visible,
from 300 meters - the heads of the pilots are visible.
Gunner! For a temporary ceasefire, release the fuse and trigger.
Gunner's Assistant! Report the setting of the aiming ring, for example: "Twelve".
Gunner! With a complete ceasefire, unload the machine gun, for which move the handle forward to failure, lower the firing pin, set the sight and rear sight to their original position, put the sight stand on the box cover and push the cartridge case or cartridge out of the output tube; after that report: "The trunk and the excretory tube are free." Cover the panorama of the optical sight with a cover, and if necessary, remove the sight and hand it over to the assistant gunner to put it in the box.
Gunner's Assistant! Take the tape out of the receiver and put it in the cartridge box, unscrew the steam vent, close the steam vent, put on the cap, close the shield flap and put the covers on the machine gun.
In peacetime, the command "Pull the lock" is given.
Gunner! On this command, unload the machine gun, open the lid of the box, lift the lock out of the box and put it on the butt plate.
Gunner's Assistant! Grab the cover of the box, put it close to the shield and grab the sight with the rack.
SHOOTING IN-BAND AND PAST
FLANK YOUR UNITS
AT in combat it is often imagined to fire past the flank and into the gaps between the units of their troops acting in front.
For such shooting, first of all, it is necessary to strictly ensure safety limits of his troops, which are shown in the following table:
If the norms indicated in the table are met, then shooting past the flank and in the gaps is allowed. In this case, the bullets should not fall next to our troops or behind them, since their fighters can be hit by ricocheting bullets.
Example 1 Removal of their troops from the machine gun 400 meters (Fig. 214).
If the fire is conducted with the help of an optical sight, a machine gun with a zero setting of the protractor is aimed at the right-flank fighter and the machine gun is fixed. Then set the protractor (safety angle) at 30 - 30. With this setting, the goniometer is pointed at the right-flank fighter, the machine gun is fixed and the limiter is placed on the left.
If firing is carried out with an open sight, then the gunner, using a machine-gun ruler or a finger, measures a safety angle of 30 thousandths of a finger from the right flank (Fig. 215) and notices a point on the right safety border. Then he aims the machine gun at the spotted point and sets the limiter on the left.
Example 2 (Fig. 216). Their troops moved forward 300 meters. The gunner finds the flank fighters of his advanced units. Then it sets the right and left safety margins according to the optical sight or according to the terrain. The value of the safety angle will be 60 goniometric divisions (the width of two fingers at a distance of 50 centimeters from the eye). Between the right and left safety margins there must be a gap of at least 5 goniometric divisions. If it doesn't, you can't shoot.
A machine gun can also fire through friendly troops, however, such fire is fired only at the command of the commander.
5. AIMING THE MACHINE GUN ON THE GONITOR
P ri indirect
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Dear colleagues, since the main hero “is an artillery officer, your humble servant had to figure out a little about the issues of fire control in the period shortly before the start of WWI. As I suspected, the question turned out to be f-ski complicated, but still I managed to collect some information. This material does not in any way claim to be complete and comprehensive, it is only an attempt to bring together all the facts and conjectures that I now have.
Let's try "on the fingers" to understand the features of artillery fire. In order to aim the gun at the target, you need to set it with the correct sight (vertical pointing angle) and rear sight (horizontal pointing angle). In essence, the installation of the correct sight and rear sight comes down to all the artful science of artillery. However, it is easy to say, but difficult to do.
The simplest case is when our gun is stationary and stands on level ground and we need to hit the same stationary target. In this case, it would seem that it is enough to point the gun so that the barrel looks directly at the target (and we will have the correct rear sight), and find out the exact distance to the target. Then, using the artillery tables, we can calculate the elevation angle (sight), give it to the gun and boom! Let's hit the target.
In fact, this, of course, is not the case - if the target is far enough away, you need to take corrections for the wind, for air humidity, for the degree of gun wear, for gunpowder temperature, etc. etc. - and even after all this, if the target is not too large, you will have to gouge it properly from the cannon, since slight deviations in the shape and weight of the projectiles, as well as the weight and quality of the charges, will still lead to a known spread of hits (ellipse scattering). But if we fire a certain number of projectiles, then in the end, according to the law of statistics, we will definitely hit the target.
But we will put the problem of corrections aside for now, and consider the weapon and the target as such spherical horses in a vacuum. Suppose shooting is carried out on an absolutely flat surface, with always the same humidity, not a breeze, the gun is made of material that does not burn out in principle, etc. etc. In this case, when firing from a stationary gun at a stationary target, it will really be enough to know the distance to the target, which gives us the angle of vertical aiming (sight) and the direction to it (sight)
But what if the target or weapon is not stationary? For example, how is it in the navy? The gun is located on a ship that is moving somewhere at a certain speed. His goal, disgusting, also does not stand still, it can go at absolutely any angle to our course. And with absolutely any speed that only comes into her captain's head. What then?
Since the enemy is shifting in space and taking into account the fact that we are not shooting from a turbolaser, instantly hitting the target, and from a gun, the projectile of which needs some time to reach the target, you need to make a lead, i.e. shoot not where the enemy ship is at the time of the shot, but where it will be in 20–30 seconds, by the time our projectile approaches.
It seems to be also easy - let's look at the diagram.
Our ship is at point O, the enemy ship is at point A. If, while at point O, our ship shoots at the enemy from a cannon, then while the projectile is flying, the enemy ship will move to point B. Accordingly, during the flight of the projectile, the following will change:
- Distance to the target ship (was OA, will become OB);
- Bearing to the target (there was an S angle, but it will become a D angle)
Accordingly, in order to determine the correction of the sight, it is enough to know the difference between the length of the segments OA and OB, i.e. the amount of distance change (hereinafter - VIR). And in order to determine the correction of the rear sight, it is enough to know the difference between the angles S and D, i.e. the value of the bearing change
- Distance to the target ship (OA);
- Target bearing (angle S);
- Target course;
- Target speed.
Now let's consider how the information needed to calculate the VIR and VIP was obtained.
1. Distance to the target ship - obviously, according to the rangefinder. And even better - several rangefinders, preferably at least three. Then the most deviant value can be discarded, and the arithmetic mean can be taken from the other two. Determining the distance using several rangefinders is obviously more efficient.
2. Target bearing (heading angle, if you like) - with the accuracy of "half-finger-ceiling" is determined by any goniometer, but for a more accurate measurement it is desirable to have a sighting device - a device with high-quality optics, capable of (including) very accurately determining the heading angle goals. For sights intended for central aiming, the position of the target ship was determined with an error of 1-2 divisions of the rear sight of an artillery gun (i.e. 1-2 thousandths of a distance, at a distance of 90 kbt, the position of the ship was determined with an accuracy of 30 meters)
3. Target course. For this, arithmetic calculations and special artillery binoculars, with divisions applied to it, were already required. It was done like this - first it was necessary to identify the target ship. Remember its length. Measure the distance to it. Convert the length of the ship to the number of divisions on the artillery binoculars for a given distance. Those. calculate: "Sooo, the length of this ship is 150 meters, for 70 kbt a ship 150 meters long should occupy 7 divisions of artillery binoculars." After that, look at the ship through artillery binoculars and determine how many divisions it actually occupies there. If, for example, the ship occupies 7 spaces, this means that it is turned to us with its entire side. And if it is less (let's say - 5 divisions) - this means that the ship is located towards us at some angle. Calculating, again, is not too difficult - if we know the length of the ship (i.e. the hypotenuse AB, in the example it is 7) and we determined the length of its projection with the help of artbinoculars (i.e. the leg AC in the example is length 5), then to calculate the angle S is a matter of life.
The only thing I would like to add is that the role of artillery binoculars could be performed by the same sight
4. Target speed. Now that was more difficult. In principle, the speed could be estimated “by eye” (with appropriate accuracy), but it can, of course, be more accurate - knowing the distance to the target and its course, you can observe the target and determine its angular displacement speed - i.e. how quickly the bearing to the target changes. Further, the distance traveled by the ship is determined (again, nothing more complicated right triangles you don’t have to count) and its speed.
Here, however, one can ask - why, for example, do we need to complicate everything so much, if we can simply measure the changes in VIP by observing the target ship in the sight? But here the thing is that the change in the VIP is non-linear, and therefore the data of current measurements quickly become obsolete.
The next question is what do we want from a fire control system (FCS)? But what.
The SLA should receive the following data:
- Distance to the enemy target ship and bearing to it;
- Course and speed of own ship.
At the same time, of course, the data must be constantly updated as quickly as possible.
- The course and speed of the enemy target ship;
- Convert the course/velocities into a model of the movement of ships (own and enemy), with the help of which you can predict the position of the ships;
- Firing lead taking into account VIR, VIP and projectile flight time;
- Sight and rear sight, taking into account lead (taking into account all kinds of corrections (gunpowder temperature, wind, humidity, etc.)).
The FCS must transfer the sight and rear sight from the giving device in the conning tower (central post) to artillery pieces so that the functions of the gunners with the guns are minimal (ideally, the guns' own sights are not used at all).
The SLA must ensure salvo firing of the guns selected by the senior artilleryman at the time chosen by him.
Artillery fire control devices arr 1910 of N.K. Geisler & K
They were installed on Russian dreadnoughts (both Baltic and Black Sea) and included many mechanisms for various purposes. All devices can be divided into giving (into which data was entered) and receiving (which gave out some data). In addition to them, there were many auxiliary devices that ensured the operation of the rest, but we will not talk about them, we will list the main ones:
Instruments for transmitting rangefinder readings
Givers - located in the rangefinder cabin. They had a scale that allows you to set the distance from 30 to 50 kbt with an accuracy of half a cable, from 50 to 75 kbt - 1 cable, and from 75 to 150 kbt - 5 cables. The operator, having determined the range using a range finder, set the appropriate value manually
The receivers - located in the conning tower and the CPU, had exactly the same dial as the givers. As soon as the operator of the giving device set a certain value, it was immediately reflected on the dial of the receiving device.
Devices for transmitting the direction of targets and signals
Pretty funny devices, the task of which was to indicate the ship on which to fire (but by no means the bearing on this ship), and orders were given on the type of attack "shot / attack / zeroing / volley / quick fire"
The giving devices were located in the conning tower, the receiving ones were at each casemate gun and one for each tower. They worked similarly to instruments for transmitting rangefinder readings.
Entire devices (devices for transmitting a horizontal sight)
This is where the ambiguities begin. Everything is more or less clear with the giving devices - they were located in the conning tower and had a scale of 140 divisions corresponding to the divisions of the gun sights (i.e. 1 division - 1/1000 of the distance) The receiving devices were placed directly on the sights of the guns. The system worked like this - the operator of the giving device in the conning tower (CPU) set a certain value on the scale. Accordingly, the same value was shown on the receiving devices, after which the gunner's task was to turn the sighting mechanisms until the horizontal aiming of the gun coincided with the arrow on the device. Then - it seems to be openwork, the gun is pointed correctly
There is a suspicion that the device did not give out the angle of the horizontal sight, but only a correction for lead. Not verified.
Devices for transferring the height of the sight
The most complex unit
Giving devices were located in the conning tower (CPU). Data on the distance to the target and VIR (the amount of change in distance, if anyone forgot) was manually entered into the device, after which this device began to click something there and give out the distance to the target in the current time. Those. the device independently added / subtracted the VIR from the distance and transmitted this information to the receiving devices.
The receiving devices, as well as the receiving whole devices, were mounted on the sights of the guns. But it was not the distance that appeared on them, but the sight. Those. devices for transmitting the height of the sight independently converted the distance into the angle of the sight and gave it to the guns. The process was running continuously, i.e. at each moment of time, the arrow of the receiving device showed the actual sight at the current moment. Moreover, it was possible to make corrections in the receiving device of this system (by connecting several eccentrics). Those. if, for example, the gun was heavily shot and its firing range fell, say, by 3 kbt compared to the new one, it was enough to install the appropriate eccentric - now, to the angle of the sight transmitted from the giving device, specifically for this gun, an angle was added to compensate for the three-cable undershoot These were individual corrections for each gun.
Exactly on the same principle, it was possible to introduce adjustments for the temperature of gunpowder (it was taken the same as the temperature in the cellars), as well as adjustments for the type of charge / projectile "training / combat / practical"
But that's not all.
The fact is that the accuracy of the sight installation was “plus or minus a tram stop adjusted for the azimuth of the North Star.” It was easy to make a mistake both with the range to the target and with the size of the VIR. Special cynicism also consisted in the fact that the range from the rangefinders always came with a certain delay. The fact is that the rangefinder determined the distance to the object at the time the measurement began. But in order to determine this range, he had to perform a number of actions, including “combining the picture”, etc. All this took some time. It took some more time to report a certain range and set its value on the giving device to transmit the rangefinder readings. Thus, according to various sources, the senior artillery officer saw on the receiving device for transmitting rangefinder readings not the current range, but the one that was almost a minute ago.
So, the giving device for transmitting the height of the sight gave the senior artilleryman the widest opportunities for this. At any time during the operation of the device, it was possible to manually enter a correction for the range or for the size of the VIR, and the device continued to calculate from the moment the correction was entered, already taking it into account. It was possible to turn off the device altogether and set the sight values manually. And it was also possible to set the values \u200b\u200bin a “jerk” - i.e. if, for example, our device shows a sight of 15 degrees, then we can fire three volleys in a row - at 14, at 15 and at 16 degrees, without waiting for the shells to fall and without introducing range / VIR corrections, but the initial setting of the machine does not got lost.
And finally
Howlers and calls
Giving devices are located in the conning tower (CPU), and the howlers themselves - one for each gun. When the fire manager wants to fire a volley, he closes the corresponding circuits and the gunners fire shots at the guns.
Unfortunately, it is absolutely impossible to talk about the Geisler of the 1910 model as a full-fledged SLA. Why?
- Geisler's OMS did not have a device to determine the bearing to the target (there was no sight);
- There was no instrument that could calculate her course and the speed of the target ship. So having received the range (from the device for transmitting rangefinder readings) and determining the bearing to it with improvised means, everything else had to be calculated manually;
- There were also no instruments to determine the course and speed of their own ship - they also had to be obtained by "improvised means", that is, not included in the Geisler kit;
- There was no device for automatic calculation of VIR and VIP - i.e. having received and calculated the courses / speeds of their own ship and targets, it was necessary to calculate both the VIR and the VIP, again manually.
Thus, despite the presence of very advanced devices that automatically consider the height of the sight, Geisler's OMS still required very a large number manual calculations - and it was not good.
Geisler's SLA did not exclude, and could not exclude, the use of gun sights by gunners. The fact is that the automatic sight height calculated the sight ... of course, for the moment when the ship is on an even keel. And the ship experiences both pitch and roll. And Geisler's SLA did not take it into account at all and in no way. Therefore, there is an assumption, very similar to the truth, that the task of the gunner of the gun included such a “twisting” of the tip, which would make it possible to compensate for the pitching of the ship. It is clear that it was necessary to "twist" constantly, although there are doubts that the 305-mm guns could be "stabilized" manually. Also, if I am right that Geisler's FCS did not transmit the horizontal aiming angle, but only the lead, then the gunner of each gun independently aimed his gun in the horizontal plane and only took the lead on orders from above.
Geisler's SLA allowed salvo fire. But the senior artilleryman could not give a simultaneous volley - he could give the signal to open fire, it is not the same. Those. imagine a picture - four towers of "Sevastopol", in each gunners "twist" the sights, compensating for pitching. Suddenly - howler! Someone has a normal sight, he shoots, and someone has not screwed it up yet, he twists it, fires a shot ... and a difference of 2-3 seconds greatly increases the dispersion of shells. Thus, giving a signal does not mean receiving a one-time salvo.
But here's what Geisler's OMS did really well - it was with the transfer of data from the giving devices in the conning tower to the receiving devices at the guns. There were no problems here, and the system turned out to be very reliable and fast.
In other words, the Geisler devices of the 1910 model were not so much an OMS, but a way of transmitting data from the glavart to the guns (although the presence of an automatic calculation of the height of the sight gives the right to attribute Geisler to the OMS).
A sighting device appeared in Erickson's MSA, while it was connected to an electromechanical device that gave out the horizontal aiming angle. Thus, apparently, the rotation of the sight led to the automatic displacement of the arrows on the sights of the guns.
There were 2 central gunners in Erickson's MSA, one of them was engaged in horizontal aiming, the second - vertical, and it was they (and not the gunners) who took into account the pitching angle - this angle was constantly measured and added to the aiming angle on an even keel. So the gunners had only to twist their guns so that the sight and rear sight corresponded to the values of the arrows on the sights. The gunner no longer needed to look into the gunsight.
Generally speaking, trying to “keep up” with the pitching by manually stabilizing the gun looks strange. It would be much easier to resolve the issue using a different principle - a device that would close the circuit and fire a shot when the ship was on an even keel. In Russia, there were pitching control devices based on the operation of the pendulum. But alas, they had a fair amount of error and could not be used for artillery fire. To tell the truth, the Germans had such a device only after Jutland, and Erickson still gave results that were not worse than "manual stabilization".
Volley fire was carried out according to a new principle - now, when the gunners in the tower were ready, they pressed a special pedal, and the senior gunner closed the circuit by pressing his own pedal in the conning tower (CPU) as the towers were ready. Those. volleys became really one-time.
Whether Erickson had devices for automatic calculation of VIR and VIP - I do not know. But what is known for certain - as of 1911-1912. Erickson's OMS was tragically unprepared. The transmission mechanisms from the giving devices to the receiving ones did not work well. The process took much longer than in Geisler's OMS, but mismatches constantly occurred. The roll control devices worked too slowly, so that the sight and rear sight of the central gunners "did not keep up" with the roll - with corresponding consequences for the accuracy of fire. What was to be done?
Russian imperial fleet went down a fairly original path. The Geisler system, model 1910, was installed on the newest battleships. And since of the entire FCS there was only sight height calculation devices, it was apparently decided not to wait until Erickson's FCS was brought to mind, not to try to buy a new FCS (for example, from the British) entirely, but to acquire / bring to mind the missing devices and simply supplement the Geisler system with them.
An interesting sequence is given by Mr. Serg on Tsushima: http://tsushima.su/forums/viewtopic.php?id=6342&p=1
On January 11, MTK decided to install the Erickson system at Sevakh.
12 May Erickson is not ready, a contract is signed with Geisler.
On September 12, a contract was signed with Erickson for the installation of additional instruments.
September 13 Erickson completed the Pollen and AVP Geisler instrument.
January 14, installation of a set of Pollen's instruments on the PV.
June 14, tests of Pollen's devices on PV were completed
December 15th conclusion of a contract for the development and installation of a central heating system.
On 16th autumn, the installation of the central heating was completed.
17g shooting with CN.
As a result, the SLA of our "Sevastopol" has become that even a hodgepodge. The VIR and VIP calculation machines were supplied by English ones bought from Pollan. The sights are at Erickson. The machine for calculating the height of the sight was at first Geisler, then replaced by Erickson. To determine the courses, a gyroscope was installed (but not the fact that in WWI, maybe later ...) In general, around 1916, our Sevastopol received a completely first-class central aiming system for those times.
And what about our sworn friends?
It seems that the best way to Jutland was with the British. The guys from the island came up with the so-called "Dreyer Table", which automated the processes of developing vertical and horizontal sights as much as possible.
The British had to take the bearing and determine the distance to the target manually, but the course and speed of the enemy ship was automatically calculated by the Dumaresque device. Again, as far as I understood, the results of these calculations were automatically transmitted to the “Dreyer table”, which received data on its own course / speed from some analogue of a speedometer and gyrocompass, built a model of the movement of ships, calculated VIR and VIP. In our country, even after the appearance of the Pollan device, which calculated the VIR, the transfer of the VIR to the machine for calculating the height of the sight took place as follows - the operator read Pollan's readings, then entered them into the machine for calculating the height of the sight. With the British, everything happened automatically.
I tried to bring the data on the LMS into a single table, this is what happened:
Alas for me - probably the table sins with many errors, the data on the German LMS are extremely lapidary: http://navycollection.narod.ru/library/Haase/artillery.htm
And in English - English language which I don't know: http://www.dreadnoughtproject.org/tfs/index.php/Dreyer_Fire_Control_Table
How the British solved the issue with compensation of longitudinal / transverse rolling - I do not know. But the Germans did not have any compensating devices (they appeared only after Jutland).
Generally speaking, it turns out that the SLA of the Baltic dreadnoughts was still inferior to the British, and was approximately on the same level with the Germans. True, with one exception.
On the German "Derflinger" there were 7 (in words - SEVEN) rangefinders. And they all measured the distance to the enemy, and the average value got into the machine for calculating the sight. At the domestic "Sevastopol" initially there were only two rangefinders (there were also the so-called Krylov rangefinders, but they were nothing more than improved Lujols-Myakishev micrometers and did not provide high-quality measurements at long distances).
On the one hand, it would seem that such rangefinders (of much better quality than those of the British) just provided the Germans with a quick sighting in Jutland, but is this so? The same "Derflinger" shot only from the 6th volley, and even then, in general, by accident (in theory, the sixth volley was supposed to give a flight, the leader of the "Derflinger" Hase tried to take the British into the fork, however, to his surprise, there was a cover ). "Goeben" in general also did not show brilliant results. But it must be taken into account that the Germans nevertheless shot much better than the British, probably there is some merit of the German rangefinders in this.
But I believe that the best accuracy of the German ships is by no means the result of superiority over the British in the material part, but a completely different system for training gunners.
Here I will allow myself to make some excerpts from the book Hector Charles Bywater and Hubert Cecil Ferraby Strange intelligence. Memoirs of Naval Secret Service. Constable, London, 1931: http://militera.lib.ru/h/bywater_ferraby/index.html
Influenced by Admiral Thomsen German Navy began experimenting with long-range shooting in 1895... ...The newly created navy can afford to be less conservative than navies with old traditions. And therefore, in Germany, all innovations capable of enhancing the combat power of the fleet were guaranteed official approval in advance ....
The Germans, having made sure that shooting at long distances was feasible in practice, immediately gave their side guns the largest possible aiming angle ...
... If the gun turrets of the Germans already in 1900 allowed the guns to raise their barrels by 30 degrees, then on the British ships the angle of elevation did not exceed 13.5 degrees, which gave the German ships significant advantages. If war had broken out at that time, german navy significantly, even to a decisive extent, would surpass us in accuracy and range of fire ....
... The centralized fire control system "Fire-director", installed, as already noted, on the ships of the British fleet, the Germans did not have for some time after the Battle of Jutland, but the effectiveness of their fire was confirmed by the results of this battle.
Of course, these results were the fruit of twenty years of intensive work, persistent and meticulous, which is generally characteristic of the Germans. For every hundred pounds that we allotted in those years for research in the field of artillery, Germany allocated a thousand. Let's take just one example. Secret Service agents learned in 1910 that the Germans allot a lot more shells for exercises than we do for large-caliber guns - 80 percent more shots. Live firing exercises against armored target ships were a constant practice among the Germans, while in the British Navy they were very rare or even not carried out at all ....
... In 1910, important exercises were held in the Baltic using the Richtungsweiser device installed on board the Nassau and Westfalen ships. A high percentage of hits on moving targets from distances up to 11,000 meters was demonstrated, and after certain improvements, new practical tests were organized.
But in March 1911, accurate and much explaining information was received. It dealt with the results of firing exercises carried out by a division of German warships equipped with 280-mm guns at a towed target at a distance of an average of 11,500 meters with fairly heavy seas and moderate visibility. 8 percent of the shells hit the target. This result was far superior to anything we had been told before. Therefore, the experts showed skepticism, but the evidence was quite reliable.
It was quite clear that the campaign was undertaken to test and compare the merits of target designation and guidance systems. One of them was already on the battleship Alsace, and the other, experimental, was installed on the Blucher. The shooting site was 30 miles southwest of the Faroe Islands, the target was a light cruiser that was part of the division. It is clear that they did not shoot at the cruiser itself. He, as they say in the British Navy, was a “shifted target”, that is, aiming was carried out at the target ship, while the guns themselves were shifted to a certain angle and fired. The check is very simple - if the instruments are working correctly, then the shells will fall exactly at the calculated distance from the stern of the target ship.
The fundamental advantage of this method, invented, according to their own statements, by the Germans, is that, without compromising the accuracy of the results obtained, it makes it possible to replace conventional targets in firing, which, due to heavy engines and mechanisms, can only be towed at low speed and usually in good weather.
The "shift" estimate could only be called approximate to a certain extent, because it lacks the final fact - holes in the target, but on the other hand, and the data obtained from it are accurate enough for all practical purposes.
During the first experiment, Alsace and Blucher fired from a distance of 10,000 meters at a target that was represented by a light cruiser traveling at a speed of 14 to 20 knots.
These conditions were unusually harsh for the era, and it is not surprising that the report of the results of these shootings caused controversy, and even its veracity was refuted by some British experts on naval artillery. However, these reports were true, and the test results were indeed incredibly successful.
From 10,000 meters, Alsace, armed with old 280-mm cannons, fired a three-gun volley in the wake of the target, that is, if the guns were not aimed “with a shift”, the shells would hit right on target. The battleship easily managed the same when firing from a distance of 12,000 meters.
"Blucher" was armed with 12 new 210 mm guns. He also easily managed to hit the target, most of the shells hit in the immediate vicinity or directly into the wake left by the target cruiser.
On the second day, the distance was increased to 13,000 meters. The weather was fine, and a little swell rocked the ships. Despite the increased distance, "Alsace" shot well, that before the "Blucher", he exceeded all expectations.
Moving at a speed of 21 knots, the armored cruiser "forked" the target ship, traveling at 18 knots, from the third salvo. Moreover, according to the estimates of experts who were on the target cruiser, one could confidently state the hit of one or more shells in each of the eleven volleys that followed. Given the relatively small caliber of the guns, the high speed with which both the “shooter” and the target, and the state of the sea, the result of firing at that time could be called phenomenal. All of these details, and much more, were contained in a report sent by our agent to the Secret Service.
When the report reached the Admiralty, some old officers considered it erroneous or false. The agent who wrote the report was called to London to discuss the matter. He was told that the information on the test results indicated by him in the report was “absolutely impossible”, that not a single ship would be able to hit a moving target on the move at a distance of more than 11,000 meters, in general, that all this was fiction or a mistake.
Quite by accident, these results of the German shooting became known a few weeks before the first test by the British Navy of Admiral Scott's fire control system, nicknamed "Fire-director". HMS Neptune was the first ship on which this system was installed. He conducted a firing practice in March 1911 with excellent results. But official conservatism slowed down the introduction of the device on other ships. This position lasted until November 1912, when comparative tests of the Director system installed on the Thunderer ship and the old system installed on the Orion were carried out.
Sir Percy Scott described the teachings in the following words:
“The distance was 8200 meters, the “shooter” ships were moving at a speed of 12 knots, the targets were towed at the same speed. Both ships simultaneously opened fire immediately after the signal. The Thunderer shot very well. Orion sent its shells in all directions. Three minutes later, the signal "Cease fire!" was given, and the target was checked. As a result, it turned out that the Thunderer made six more hits than the Orion.
As far as we know, the first live firing in the British Navy at a distance of 13,000 meters took place in 1913, when the ship "Neptune" fired at a target from such a distance.
Those who followed the development of the tools and techniques of artillery fire in Germany knew what we should expect. And if anything turned out to be a surprise, it was only the fact that in the Battle of Jutland the ratio of the number of shells that hit the target to the total number of shells fired did not exceed 3.5%.
I will take the liberty of asserting that the quality of German shooting was in the artillery training system, which was much better than that of the British. As a result, the Germans compensated for some superiority of the British in the LMS with professionalism.
