Types of trails and their definitions. Literary tropes: types, distinctive features, use

trails

trails

TROPES (Greek tropoi) is a term of ancient stylistics, denoting artistic comprehension and ordering of semantic changes in a word, various shifts in its semantic structure. Semasiology. The definition of T. is one of the most contentious issues already in the ancient theory of style. “A trope,” says Quintilian, “is a change in the proper meaning of a word or verbal turn, in which an enrichment of meaning is obtained. Both among grammarians and among philosophers there is an irresolvable dispute about genders, species, the number of tropes and their systematization.
The main types of T. for most theorists are: metaphor, metonymy and synecdoche with their subspecies, i.e. T., based on the use of the word in a figurative sense; but along with this, a number of phrases are included in the number of phrases, where the main meaning of the word does not shift, but is enriched by revealing new additional meanings (meanings) in it - what are the epithet, comparison, paraphrase, etc. In many cases, already ancient theorists hesitate, where to attribute this or that turnover - to T. or to figures. So, Cicero refers the paraphrase to the figures, Quintilian - to the paths. Leaving aside these disagreements, we can establish the following types of theory described by the theorists of antiquity, the Renaissance, and the Enlightenment:
1. Epithet (Greek epitheton, Latin appositum) - a defining word, mainly when it adds new qualities to the meaning of the word being defined (epitheton ornans - decorating epithet). Wed Pushkin: "ruddy dawn"; Special attention theorists give an epithet with a figurative meaning (cf. Pushkin: “my harsh days”) and an epithet with the opposite meaning - the so-called. an oxymoron (cf. Nekrasov: "wretched luxury").
2. Comparison (Latin comparatio) - revealing the meaning of a word by comparing it with another on some common basis (tertium comparationis). Wed Pushkin: "Youth is faster than a bird." The disclosure of the meaning of a word by determining its logical content is called interpretation and refers to figures (see).
3. Periphrase (Greek periphrasis, Latin circumlocutio) - "a method of presentation that describes a simple subject through complex turns." Wed Pushkin has a parodic paraphrase: “Young pet of Thalia and Melpomene, generously gifted by Apollo” (inc. young talented actress). One of the types of paraphrase is euphemism - a replacement by a descriptive turn of a word, for some reason recognized as obscene. Wed in Gogol: "get by with a handkerchief."
In contrast to the T. listed here, which are built on the enrichment of the unchanged basic meaning of the word, the following T. are built on shifts in the basic meaning of the word.
4. Metaphor (Latin translatio) - "the use of a word in a figurative sense."
The classic example given by Cicero is "the murmur of the sea". The confluence of many metaphors forms an allegory and a riddle.
5. Synecdoche (Latin intellectio) - "the case when the whole thing is recognized by a small part or when a part is recognized by the whole." The classic example given by Quintilian is "stern" instead of "ship".
6. Metonymy (Latin denominatio) - "replacement of one name of an object by another, borrowed from related and close objects." Wed Lomonosov: "read Virgil".
7. Antonomasia (Latin pronominatio) - replacement of one's own name with another, "as if from the outside, a borrowed nickname." The classic example given by Quintilian is "destroyer of Carthage" instead of "Scipio".
8. Metalepsis (Latin transumptio) - “a replacement representing, as it were, a transition from one path to another.” Wed in Lomonosov - "ten harvests have passed ...: here, through the harvest, of course, summer, after summer - a whole year."
Such are the T., built on the use of the word in a figurative sense; theorists also note the possibility of the simultaneous use of the word in a figurative and literal sense (the figure of synoikiosis) and the possibility of a confluence of contradictory metaphors (T. catachresis - Latin abusio).
Finally, a number of T. is distinguished, in which not the main meaning of the word changes, but one or another shade of this meaning. These are:
9. Hyperbole - an exaggeration brought to the point of "impossibility". Wed Lomonosov: "running, speedy wind and lightning."
10. Litotes - an understatement expressing, through a negative turnover, the content of a positive turnover (“a lot” in the meaning of “many”).
11. Irony - an expression in words of a meaning opposite to their meaning. Wed Lomonosov's characterization of Catiline by Cicero: “Yes! He is a fearful and meek person ... ".
The theoreticians of the new time consider three theories to be the main ones, built on shifts in meaning - metaphor, metonymy, and synecdoche. A significant part of the theoretical constructions in the style of the XIX-XX centuries. is devoted to the psychological or philosophical substantiation of the selection of these three T. (Bernhardi, Gerber, Wackernagel, R. Meyer, Elster, Bain, Fischer, in Russian - Potebnya, Khartsiev, etc.). So they tried to justify the difference between T. and figures as between more and less perfect forms of sensory perception (Wakernagel) or as between “means of visualization” (Mittel der Veranschaulichung) and “means of mood” (Mittel der Stimmung - T. Fischer). In the same plan, they tried to establish differences between individual T. - for example. they wanted to see in the synecdoche the expression of "direct view" (Anschaung), in metonymy - "reflection" (Reflexion), in the metaphor - "fantasy" (Gerber). The tension and conventionality of all these constructions are obvious. Since, however, linguistic facts are the direct material of observation, a number of theorists of the 19th century refers to linguistic data to substantiate the doctrine of t. and figures; this is how Gerber opposes the stylistic phenomena in the field of the semantic side of the language - to the figures as the stylistic use of the syntactic-grammatical structure of the language; Potebnya and his school insistently point to the connection between stylistic language and the range of semantic phenomena in language (especially at the early stages of its development). However, all these attempts to find the linguistic foundations of stylistic T. do not lead to positive results with an idealistic understanding of language and consciousness; only by taking into account the stages in the development of thinking and language can one find the linguistic foundations of stylistic t. It should further be remembered that the linguistic substantiation of stylistic styles does not by any means replace or eliminate the need for their literary criticism as phenomena of artistic style (as the futurists tried to assert). Evaluation of the same T. and figures as phenomena of artistic style (see) is possible only as a result of a specific literary and historical analysis; otherwise, we will return to those abstract disputes about the absolute value of one or another T., to-rye found among the rhetoricians of antiquity; however, even the best minds of antiquity did not evaluate t.
Stylistics, Semasiology.

Literary encyclopedia. - In 11 tons; M.: publishing house of the Communist Academy, Soviet Encyclopedia, Fiction. Edited by V. M. Friche, A. V. Lunacharsky. 1929-1939 .

trails

(Greek tropos - turn, turn), speech turns, in which the word changes its direct meaning to a figurative one. Types of trails: metaphor- the transfer of characteristics from one object to another, carried out on the basis of the associatively established identity of their individual features (the so-called transfer by similarity); metonymy– transfer of a name from one subject to another on the basis of their objective logical connection (transfer by adjacency); synecdoche as a kind of metonymy - the transfer of a name from an object to an object based on their generic ratio (transfer by quantity); irony in the form of antiphrase or asteism - the transfer of a name from object to object based on their logical opposition (transfer by contrast).
Tropes are common to all languages ​​and are used in everyday speech. In it, they are either deliberately used in the form of idioms - stable phraseological units (for example: drip on the brain or pull yourself together), or arise as a result of a grammatical or syntactical error. In artistic speech, tropes are always used deliberately, they introduce additional meanings, enhance the expressiveness of images, and draw the attention of readers to an important fragment of the text for the author. Tropes as figures of speech can, in turn, be emphasized by stylistic figures. Separate tropes in artistic speech are developing, unfolding over a large space of text, and as a result, an overgrown metaphor turns into symbol or allegory. Besides, certain types tropes are historically associated with certain artistic methods: types of metonymy - with realism(images-types can be considered images-synecdoches), metaphor - with romanticism(in the broad sense of the term). Finally, in artistic and everyday speech within the framework of a phrase or phrase, overlapping tropes can occur: in the idiom he has a trained eye, the word trained is used in a metaphorical sense, and the word eye is used as a synecdoche (singular instead of plural) and as metonymy (instead of the word vision ).

Literature and language. Modern illustrated encyclopedia. - M.: Rosman. Under the editorship of prof. Gorkina A.P. 2006 .

See what "Trails" are in other dictionaries:

TRAILS (from Greek τροπή, Latin tropus turn, figure of speech). 1. In poetics, this is the ambiguous use of words (allegorical and literal), which are related to each other according to the principle of contiguity (metonymy, synecdoche), similarity (metaphor), ... ... Philosophical Encyclopedia

- (from the Greek tropos turn of speech), ..1) in stylistics and poetics, the use of a word in a figurative sense, in which there is a shift in the semantics of the word from its direct meaning to a figurative one. On the ratio of the direct and figurative meanings of the word ... ... Big Encyclopedic Dictionary

Modern Encyclopedia

- (Greek) Rhetorical figures of allegory, that is, words used in a figurative, allegorical sense. Dictionary of foreign words included in the Russian language. Chudinov A.N., 1910 ... Dictionary of foreign words of the Russian language

TRAILS, see Stylistics. Lermontov Encyclopedia / USSR Academy of Sciences. In t rus. lit. (Pushkin. House); Scientific ed. council of the publishing house of the Sov. Encycl. ; Ch. ed. Manuilov V. A., Editorial staff: Andronikov I. L., Bazanov V. G., Bushmin A. S., Vatsuro V. E., Zhdanov V. V., ... ... Lermontov Encyclopedia

trails- (from the Greek tropos turn, turn of speech), 1) in stylistics and poetics, the use of a word in a figurative sense, in which there is a shift in the semantics of the word from its direct meaning to a figurative one. On the ratio of the direct and figurative meanings of the word ... Illustrated Encyclopedic Dictionary

The figurative and expressive means of the language allow not only to convey information, but also to clearly and convincingly convey thoughts. Lexical expressive means make the Russian language emotional and colorful. Expressive stylistic means are used when an emotional impact on listeners or readers is necessary. It is impossible to make a presentation of oneself, a product, a company without the use of special language tools.

The word is the basis of figurative expressiveness of speech. Many words are often used not only in the direct lexical meaning. The characteristics of animals are transferred to a description of the appearance or behavior of a person - clumsy like a bear, cowardly like a hare. Polysemy (polysemy) - the use of a word in various meanings.

Homonyms are a group of words in the Russian language that have the same sound, but at the same time carry a different semantic load, serve to create a sound game in speech.

Types of homonyms:

• homographs - words are spelled the same, they change meaning depending on the stress set (lock - lock);
• homophones - words when written differ in one or more letters, but are perceived the same way by ear (the fruit is a raft);
• Homoforms are words that sound the same but refer to different parts speech (flying in an airplane - I'm flying a runny nose).

Puns - used to give speech a humorous, satirical meaning, betray sarcasm well. They are based on the sound similarity of words or their ambiguity.

Synonyms - describe the same concept from different angles, have a different semantic load and stylistic coloring. Without synonyms, it is impossible to build a vivid and figurative phrase; speech will be oversaturated with tautology.

Synonym types:

• full - identical in meaning, used in the same situations;
• semantic (semantic) - designed to give shade to words (conversation-conversation);
• stylistic - have the same meaning, but at the same time refer to different styles of speech (finger-finger);
• semantic-stylistic - have a different shade of meaning, refer to different styles of speech (do - bungled);
• contextual (author's) - used in the context used for a more colorful and multifaceted description of a person or event.

Antonyms - words have opposites lexical meaning belong to the same part of speech. Allows you to create bright and expressive phrases.

Tropes are words in Russian that are used in figuratively. They give speech and works imagery, expressiveness, are designed to convey emotions, vividly recreate the picture.

Trail definition

Metaphor is a hidden comparison, the use of nouns and verbs in a figurative sense. There is always no object of comparison in it, but there is something with which they are compared. There are short and extended metaphors. Metaphor is aimed at an external comparison of objects or phenomena.

Metonymy is a hidden comparison of objects by internal similarity. This distinguishes this trope from a metaphor.

Syntactic means of expression

Stylistic (rhetorical) - figures of speech are designed to enhance the expressiveness of speech and works of art.

Types of stylistic figures

Tropes, figures of speech, stylistic means of expression, phraseological statements make speech convincing and vivid. Such turns are indispensable in public speeches, election campaigns, rallies, presentations. In scientific publications and official business speech, such means are inappropriate - accuracy and persuasiveness in these cases is more important than emotions.

Every day we are faced with a mass of means of artistic expression, we often use them in speech ourselves, without even meaning it. We remind mom that she has golden hands; we remember bast shoes, while they have long gone out of general use; we are afraid to get a pig in a poke and exaggerate objects and phenomena. All these are paths, examples of which can be found not only in fiction, but also in oral speech each person.

What is expressiveness?

The term "paths" comes from the Greek word tropos, which in translation into Russian means "turn of speech". They are used to give figurative speech, with their help, poetic and prose works become incredibly expressive. Tropes in literature, examples of which can be found in almost any poem or story, constitute a separate layer in modern philological science. Depending on the situation of use, they are divided into lexical means, rhetorical and syntactic figures. Tropes are widespread not only in fiction, but also in oratory, and even everyday speech.

Lexical means of the Russian language

Every day we use words that in one way or another decorate speech, make it more expressive. Vivid tropes, examples of which are countless, are no less important than lexical means.

• Antonyms- Words that are opposite in meaning.
• Synonyms- lexical units that are close in meaning.
• Phraseologisms- stable combinations, consisting of two or more lexical units, which, according to semantics, can be equated to one word.
• Dialectisms- words that are common only in a certain territory.
• Archaisms- obsolete words denoting objects or phenomena, modern analogues of which are present in the culture and everyday life of a person.
• historicisms- terms denoting objects or phenomena that have already disappeared.

Tropes in Russian (examples)

At present, the means of artistic expression are magnificently demonstrated in the works of the classics. Most often these are poems, ballads, poems, sometimes stories and novels. They decorate speech and give it imagery.

• Metonymy- substitution of one word for another by adjacency. For example: At midnight on New Year's Eve, the whole street went out to let off fireworks.
• Epithet- a figurative definition that gives the subject an additional characteristic. For example: Mashenka had magnificent silk curls.
• Synecdoche- the name of the part instead of the whole. For example: At the faculty international relations learns and Russian, and Finn, and English, and Tatar.
• personification- the assignment of animate qualities to an inanimate object or phenomenon. For example: The weather was worried, angry, raging, and a minute later it started to rain.
• Comparison- an expression based on a comparison of two objects. For example: Your face is fragrant and pale, like a spring flower.
• Metaphor- transferring the properties of one object to another. For example: Our mother has golden hands.

Tropes in literature (examples)

The presented means of artistic expression are less often used in speech. modern man, but this does not diminish their significance in the literary heritage of great writers and poets. Thus, litotes and hyperbole often find use in satirical stories, and allegory in fables. Paraphrase is used to avoid repetition in or speech.

• Litotes- artistic understatement. For example: A man with a fingernail works at our factory.
• paraphrase- replacement of a direct name with a descriptive expression. For example: The night luminary is especially yellow today (about the Moon).
• Allegory- the image of abstract objects with images. For example: Human qualities - cunning, cowardice, clumsiness - are revealed in the form of a fox, a hare, a bear.
• Hyperbola- Deliberate exaggeration. For example: My buddy has incredibly huge ears, about the size of a head.

Rhetorical figures

The idea of ​​each writer is to intrigue his reader and not demand an answer to the problems posed. A similar effect is achieved through the use of rhetorical questions, exclamations, appeals, silences in a work of art. All these are tropes and figures of speech, examples of which are probably familiar to every person. Their use in everyday speech is approving, the main thing is to know the situation when it is appropriate.

A rhetorical question is put at the end of a sentence and does not require a response from the reader. It makes you think about the real issues.

The incentive offer ends. Using this figure, the writer calls for action. The exclamation should also be classified under the "paths" section.

Examples of rhetorical appeal can be found in "To the Sea"), in Lermontov ("The Death of a Poet"), as well as in many other classics. It does not apply to a specific person, but to the entire generation or era as a whole. Using it in a work of art, the writer can blame or, conversely, approve of actions.

Rhetorical silence is actively used in lyrical digressions. The writer does not express his thought to the end and gives rise to further reasoning.

Syntactic figures

Such techniques are achieved through sentence construction and include word order, punctuation; they contribute to intriguing and interesting sentence design, which is why every writer strives to use these tropes. Examples are especially noticeable when reading the work.

• polyunion- deliberate increase in the number of unions in the proposal.
• Asyndeton- the absence of unions when listing objects, actions or phenomena.
• Syntax parallelism- comparison of two phenomena by their parallel image.
• Ellipsis- deliberate omission of a number of words in a sentence.
• Inversion- violation of the order of words in the construction.
• Parceling- intentional segmentation of the sentence.

Figures of speech

Tropes in Russian, examples of which are given above, can be continued indefinitely, but do not forget that there is another conditionally distinguished section of means of expression. Artistic figures play an important role in written and oral speech.

Table of all trails with examples

It is important for high school students, graduates of humanitarian faculties and philologists to know the variety of means of artistic expression and the cases of their use in the works of classics and contemporaries. If you want to know in more detail what tropes are, a table with examples will replace dozens of literary critical articles for you.

The role of means of artistic expression

The use of tropes in everyday speech elevates each person, makes him more literate and educated. A variety of means of artistic expression can be found in any literary work, poetic or prose. Paths and figures, examples of which every self-respecting person should know and use, do not have an unambiguous classification, since from year to year philologists continue to explore this area of ​​the Russian language. If in the second half of the twentieth century they singled out only metaphor, metonymy and synecdoche, now the list has grown tenfold.

2.3 Figure is a set of syntactic means of speech expressiveness, the most important of which are stylistic (rhetorical) figures.

Stylistic figures - these are symmetrical syntactic constructions based on various kinds of repetitions, omissions and changes in the order of words in order to create expressiveness.

The main types of figures

three styles:

High(solemn),

Average(mediocre),

Short(simple)

Cicero wrote that the ideal orator is one who can talk about the low simply, about the high - importantly and about the average - moderately.

Trope - the use of words and expressions in a figurative sense in order to create an artistic image, which results in an enrichment of meaning. Tropes include: epithet, oxymoron, comparison, metaphor, personification, metonymy, synecdoche, hyperbole, litote, pun, irony, sarcasm, paraphrase. none piece of art not without paths. The literary word is multi-valued, the writer creates images, playing with the meanings and combinations of words, using the environment of the word in the text and its sound.

Metaphor - the use of a word in a figurative sense; a phrase that characterizes a given phenomenon by transferring to it the features inherent in another phenomenon (due to one or another similarity of the converging phenomena), which is so. arr. replaces him. The peculiarity of a metaphor as a type of trope is that it is a comparison, the members of which have merged so much that the first member (what was compared) is displaced and completely replaced by the second (what was compared).

"A bee from a wax cell / Flies for tribute in the field" (Pushkin)

where honey is compared with tribute and a beehive with a cell, with the first terms replaced by the second. Metaphor, like any trope, is based on the property of the word that in its meaning it relies not only on the essential and general qualities of objects (phenomena), but also on all the wealth of its secondary definitions and individual qualities and properties. For example, in the word "star" we, along with the essential and general meaning (heavenly body) we also have a number of secondary and individual signs - the radiance of a star, its remoteness, etc. M. and arises through the use of "secondary" meanings of words, which allows us to establish new connections between them (a secondary sign of tribute is that it is collected ; cells - its tightness, etc.). For artistic thinking, these "secondary" signs, expressing moments of sensuous visualization, are a means of revealing through them the essential features of the reflected class reality. M. enriches our understanding of a given subject, attracting new phenomena to characterize it, expanding our understanding of its properties.

Metonymy is a kind of trope, the use of a word in a figurative sense, a phrase in which one word is replaced by another, as a metaphor, with the difference from the latter that this substitution can only be made by a word denoting an object (phenomenon) located in one or another (spatial, temporal, etc.) connection with the object (phenomenon), which is denoted by the replaced word. The meaning of metonymy is that it singles out a property in a phenomenon that, by its nature, can replace the rest. Thus, metonymy essentially differs from metaphor, on the one hand, by a greater real interconnection of substituting members, and, on the other hand, by greater limitation, the elimination of those features that are not directly given in this phenomenon. Like metaphor, metonymy is inherent in language in general, but it is of particular importance in artistic and literary creativity, receiving in each specific case its own class saturation and use.

"All flags will visit us", where the flags replace the countries (a part replaces the whole). The meaning of metonymy is that it singles out a property in a phenomenon that, by its nature, can replace the rest. Thus, metonymy essentially differs from metaphor, on the one hand, by a greater real relationship of substitute members, and on the other hand the other is bigger restrictiveness, the elimination of those features that are not directly noticeable in this phenomenon. Like metaphor, metonymy is inherent in language in general (cf., for example, the word "wiring", the meaning of which is metonymically extended from the action to its result), but it has a special meaning in artistic and literary creativity.

Synecdoche is a type of trope, the use of a word in a figurative sense, namely, the replacement of a word denoting a known object or group of objects with a word denoting a part of a named object or a single object.

Synecdoche is a type of metonymy. Synecdoche is a technique that consists in transferring meaning from one object to another on the basis of quantitative similarity between them.

"The buyer chooses quality products." The word "Buyer" replaces the entire set of possible buyers.

"Stern moored to the shore." The ship is meant.

Hyperbole is a technique in which an image is created through artistic exaggeration. Hyperbole is not always included in the set of tropes, but by the nature of the use of the word in a figurative sense to create an image, hyperbole is very close to tropes.

"I've said it a thousand times"

"We have enough food for six months"

"For four years we have been preparing an escape, we have saved three tons of grubs"

Litota is the opposite of hyperbole, a stylistic figure of explicit and deliberate understatement, belittling and destruction, with the aim of enhancing expressiveness. In essence, the litote is extremely close to hyperbole in its expressive meaning, which is why it can be considered as a type of hyperbole.

"A horse the size of a cat"

"A person's life is one moment"

"Waist, no thicker than the neck of a bottle"

Personification - an expression that gives an idea of ​​​​a concept or phenomenon by depicting it in the form of a living person endowed with properties this concept(for example, the image of the Greeks and Romans of happiness in the form of a capricious goddess-fortune, etc.).

Very often, personification is used in the depiction of nature, which is endowed with certain human features, "revived":

"the sea laughed"

"... The Neva rushed to the sea all night against the storm, not overcoming their violent dope ... and arguing

it became too much for her... The weather became more and more fierce, the Neva swelled and roared... and suddenly, like a wild beast, it rushed at the city... Siege! Attack! evil waves, like thieves, climb through the windows, etc.

Allegory is a conditional representation of abstract ideas (concepts) through a specific artistic image or dialogue. Thus, the difference between allegory and related forms of figurative expression (tropes) is the presence in it of specific symbolism, subject to abstract interpretation; therefore, the rather common definition of allegory as an extended metaphor (J. P. Richter, Fischer, Richard Meyer) is essentially incorrect, since the metaphor lacks that logical act of reinterpretation, which is integral to allegory. Of the literary genres based on allegory, the most important are: fable, parable , morality. But allegory can become the main artistic device of any genre in cases where abstract concepts and relationships become the subject of poetic creativity.

"He tangled up such allegories and equivocations that, it seems, a century would not have succeeded"

Antonomasia - a turn of speech, expressed in the replacement of the name or name by indicating some essential feature subject (for example: a great poet instead of Pushkin) or his relationship to something (the author of "War and Peace" instead of Tolstoy; Peleus son instead of Achilles). In addition, anthonomasia is also considered a replacement common noun own (Esculapius instead of doctor).

Epithet - refers to tropes, this is a figurative definition that gives an artistic description of an object or phenomenon. An epithet is a hidden comparison and can be expressed both as an adjective and as an adverb, noun, numeral or verb. Due to its structure and special function in the text, the epithet acquires some new meaning or semantic connotation, helps the word (expression) to acquire color, richness.

Nouns: "Here he is, the leader without squads," "My youth! My swarthy dove!"

Paraphrase is a syntactic-semantic figure that consists in replacing a one-word name of an object or action with a descriptive verbose expression. School and classical style distinguishes several types of paraphrases:

I. As a grammatical figure:

• a) the property of the object is taken as a control word, while the name of the object is taken as a controlled word: "The poet used to amuse the khans with rattlesnakes" (a paraphrase of the word "verses");
• b) the verb is replaced by a noun formed from the same stem with another (auxiliary) verb: "an exchange is made" instead of "is exchanged".

II. As a stylistic figure:

c) the name of the object is replaced by a descriptive expression, which is an expanded path (metaphor, metonymy, etc.): "send me, in the language of Delisle, twisted steel piercing the tarred head of the bottle, i.e. corkscrew"

Comparison is a comparison of one object or phenomenon with another, which gives the description a special figurativeness, visibility, pictoriality.

Examples: trope artwork

"There, like a black iron leg, ran, galloped poker"

"A white snowdrift rushes along the ground like a snake"