Words from the Indo-European language. Original Russian vocabulary. It has been established that the distribution centers of Indo-European dialects were located in the strip from Central Europe and the northern Balkans to the northern Black Sea region.
Factors in the formation of the vocabulary of the language
A modern lexical system capable of satisfying the nominative and communicative needs of a person in the late 20th and early 21st centuries. is the result of long development. The active vocabulary of a modern person includes units that have appeared quite recently ( server, voucher, copier, impeachment) and words that arose in the preliterate era ( white, go, mother).
The formation of the vocabulary of the Russian language reflects the evolutionary path of language development in the process of human development. The development of the external, material world and the development of the spiritual world of a person leads to a regular expansion, first of all, of vocabulary.
Vocabulary is the most dynamic level in the language system. Its development is caused by the need to name new phenomena of reality. At the same time, it is the lexical composition of the language that is the best keeper of the memory of the people. Having studied the vocabulary of the language of a certain people, one can understand the system of its moral, ethical views, character, features of material life, the natural environment in which this or that ethnic group exists or existed. Vocabulary by the composition of borrowings can also provide knowledge about the contacts of a nationality, an ethnic group with other peoples.
Lexical layers differing in origin
In the aspect of its origin, the vocabulary is divided, first of all, into layers native and borrowed vocabulary.
The main group of words of the modern Russian language is primordially Russian vocabulary.
native Russian is a word that arose in the Russian language or inherited from an older source language, regardless of what etymological parts, native Russian or borrowed, it consists of.
The original Russian words include boat and highway, the last word is formed from a word borrowed from the French language highway with a suffix -n-.
Traditionally, 4 chronological and linguistic layers are singled out in the formation of the original Russian vocabulary: Indo-European, Common Slavic, East Slavic and proper Russian words are distinguished.
The second group of Russian vocabulary - borrowing(words, phraseological units, including tracing papers and semi-calques), which got into the Russian language as a result of language contacts. The interaction of languages proceeded in different periods of language development, for example, ship(a word of Greek origin) entered the common Slavic, from where it was transferred to Old Russian, then to modern Russian.
Indo-European lexical fund
The most ancient among native Russian words are Indo-Europeanisms
Indo-Europeanisms- words preserved from the era of Indo-European linguistic unity.
According to scientists, in the V-IV millennium BC. e. there was an ancient Indo-European civilization that united tribes living on a rather vast territory. So, according to the studies of some linguists, it stretched from the Volga to the Yenisei, others believe that it was the Balkan-Danubian, or South Russian, localization (See also the theory of the ancestral home of the Indo-Europeans: T.V. Gamkrelidze, V.V. Ivanov. Indo-European Language and Indo-Europeans: Reconstruction and Historical-Typological Analysis of Proto-Language and Proto-Culture (Tbilisi, 1984). The Indo-European linguistic community gave rise to European and some Asian languages \u200b\u200b(for example, Bengali, Sanskrit)
The words denoting
1) kinship terms: mother Daughter and etc.;
2) the name of the animals: goose, wolf, sheep and etc.;
3) the name of the trees: oak, birch and etc.;
4) the name of metals and minerals: copper, bronze and etc.
Common, East Slavic vocabulary
The second layer of the original Russian vocabulary in terms of time of formation is Common Slavonic vocabulary.
Common Slavic words- these are words inherited by the Old Russian language from the common Slavic language, which existed until the 5th-6th centuries. AD Such words are used, as a rule, in all Slavic languages. See Table 1.
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Table 1
Russian Polish Czech. Bolg.
Takebrać brá tbera
To bebyć bý tsm, byh
SeeWidzieć vidé tseeing, seeing
The Common Slavic language served as a source for the formation of all Slavic languages. It existed in the prehistoric era on the territory between the Dnieper, Bug and Vistula rivers, inhabited by ancient Slavic tribes. By the VI-VII centuries. n. e. the common Slavic language fell apart, opening the way for the development of Slavic languages, including Old Russian.
Let us name some thematic groups characteristic of the common Slavic layer of native Russian vocabulary:
names of household items typical for a person of a primitive era: house, fire, axis;
names of animals, plants living in the places of residence of the ancient Slavs: tour, fox, deer;
names of natural phenomena: snow, stone, winter, storm, thunder, hail;
names of time intervals: month, year, century;
mineral names: gold, silver, iron.
East Slavic vocabulary- these are words that arose during the period of East Slavic linguistic unity - during the period of the existence of the Old Russian language, when the separation of the Ukrainian, Belarusian and Russian languages had not yet occurred.
The East Slavic linguistic community developed by the 7th-9th centuries. n. e. on the territory of Eastern Europe. The tribal unions that lived here go back to the Russian, Ukrainian and Belarusian nationalities.
These words are found in these three languages and are not found in the languages of other Slavic peoples.
See Table 2.
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Table 2.
Russian Ukrainian Belarusian Polish Czech
Walk walk walkscpacerovać prochazet
forget forget forgetmemoryć rememberat
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Typical thematic groups of the East Slavic layer are
1) names of animals, birds: squirrel, jackdaw, horse, bullfinch;
2) names of labor tools: axe, blade;
3) names of household items: tub, basket, crutch ;
4) names of people by profession: carpenter, cook, shoemaker, miller;
5) names of settlements: village, freedom .
Proper Russian vocabulary
Actually Russian words- these are words that appeared in the Russian language during the period of its isolated existence, from the 14th century. Until now.
These words naturally appear in the language system as a response to the need to designate new phenomena of the material and spiritual culture of the Russian people and nation. Actually Russian words are almost all nouns formed with the help of suffixes -shchik, -ovshchik, -shchik, -stvostvo, -sha (mason, undertaker, cleaner, outrage, manicurist), using the suffix -tel with the value of the active subject ( fire extinguisher, fuse), from prefixed verbs using the non-affix method of word formation ( run, clamp), using the suffix - awn from adjectives ( partisanship). Properly Russian in origin are adverbs like motherly, in a foreign way, from participatory formations on -e type triumphantly, compound nouns ( TSU, timber industry) and many others.
A proper Russian word can be created
1) according to the Russian word-formation model from proper Russian morphemes, for example, millet millet - nickname, wheat - a, wheat - th;
2) according to Russian word-formation models from proper Russian and borrowed elements: highway highway - n - th, computer computer - n - th, flare races - klesh - and - be;
3) according to Russian word-building models from borrowed components: nihil - rev.
Actually Russian formations determine the specific features of the vocabulary of the Russian language, are the main source of development, reveal its potential and real possibilities.
INDO-EUROPEAN LANGUAGES, one of the largest language families of Eurasia, spread over the past five centuries also in Northern and South America, Australia and partly in Africa. Before the Age of Discovery, Indo-European languages occupied an area from Ireland in the west to East Turkestan in the east and from Scandinavia in the north to India in the south. The Indo-European family includes about 140 languages, which are spoken by a total of about 2 billion people (2007, estimate), the first place in terms of the number of speakers is English.
The role of the study of Indo-European languages in the development of comparative historical linguistics is important. The Indo-European languages were one of the first families of languages of great temporal depth postulated by linguists. Other families in science, as a rule, were singled out (directly or at least indirectly), focusing on the experience of studying Indo-European languages, just as comparative-historical grammars and dictionaries (primarily etymological) for other language families took into account the experience of relevant works on the material of Indo-European languages. languages for which these works were first created. It was during the study of Indo-European languages that the ideas of the parent language, regular phonetic correspondences, reconstruction of the linguistic, genealogical tree of languages were first formulated; a comparative-historical method has been developed.
Within the Indo-European family, the following branches (groups) are distinguished, including those consisting of one language: Indo-Iranian languages, Greek, Italic languages (including Latin), descendants of Latin, Romance languages, Celtic languages, Germanic languages, Baltic languages, Slavic languages , Armenian language, Albanian, Hitto-Luvian languages (Anatolian), and Tocharian languages. In addition, it includes a number of extinct languages \u200b\u200b(known from extremely scarce sources - as a rule, from a few inscriptions, glosses, anthroponyms and toponyms from Greek and Byzantine authors): Phrygian, Thracian, Illyrian, Messapian, Venetian, ancient Macedonian language. These languages cannot be reliably assigned to any of the known branches (groups) and may represent separate branches (groups).
Undoubtedly, there were other Indo-European languages. Some of them died out without a trace, others left a few traces in toponomastics and substrate vocabulary (see Substrate). Attempts were made to restore individual Indo-European languages in these footsteps. The most famous reconstructions of this kind are the Pelasgian language (the language of the pre-Greek population of Ancient Greece) and the Cimmerian language, which supposedly left traces of borrowing in the Slavic and Baltic languages. The identification of the layer of Pelasgian borrowings in the Greek language and Cimmerian borrowings in the Balto-Slavic languages, based on the establishment of a special system of regular phonetic correspondences, different from those that are characteristic of the original vocabulary, allows us to build a number of Greek, Slavic and Baltic words that had no etymology before. Indo-European roots. It is difficult to determine the specific genetic affiliation of the Pelasgian and Cimmerian languages.
Over the past few centuries, during the expansion of the Indo-European languages, several dozen new languages - pidgins - were formed on the Germanic and Romance basis, some of which subsequently creolized (see Creole languages) and became quite full-fledged languages both grammatically and functionally. These are Tok Pisin, Bislama, Krio in Sierra Leone, the Gambia and Equatorial Guinea (on an English basis); Sechelva in the Seychelles, Haitian, Mauritian and Reunion (on Reunion Island in the Indian Ocean; see Creoles) Creoles (French-based); unzerdeutsch in Papua New Guinea (on a German basis); palenquero in Colombia (on a Spanish basis); Cabuverdianu, Crioulo (both in Cape Verde) and Papiamento in Aruba, Bonaire and Curaçao (on a Portuguese basis). In addition, some international artificial languages such as Esperanto are basically Indo-European.
The traditional branching scheme of the Indo-European family is shown in the diagram.
The collapse of the Proto-Indo-European base language dates back to no later than the 4th millennium BC. The greatest antiquity of the branch of the Hitto-Luvian languages is not in doubt, the time of the separation of the Tocharian branch is more controversial due to the scarcity of Tocharian data.
Attempts were made to unite the various Indo-European branches among themselves; for example, hypotheses were expressed about the special proximity of the Baltic and Slavic, Italic and Celtic languages. The most commonly recognized is the union of the Indo-Aryan languages and Iranian languages (as well as the Dardic languages and Nuristani languages) into the Indo-Iranian branch - in some cases it is possible to restore the verbal formulas that existed in the Indo-Iranian proto-language. The Balto-Slavic unity causes a little more controversy, other hypotheses are rejected in modern science. In principle, different linguistic features divide the Indo-European linguistic space in different ways. Thus, according to the results of the development of Indo-European back-lingual consonants, Indo-European languages are divided into the so-called satem languages and centum languages (the associations are named after the reflection of the Proto-Indo-European word “hundred” in different languages: in satem languages, its initial sound is reflected in the form “s”, “sh” and etc., in centum ones - in the form of "k", "x", etc.). The use of different sounds (bh and sh) in case endings divides the Indo-European languages into the so-called -mi-languages (Germanic, Baltic, Slavic) and -bhi-languages (Indo-Iranian, Italic, Greek). Different indicators of the passive voice unite, on the one hand, the Italic, Celtic, Phrygian and Tocharian languages (indicator -d), on the other hand, Greek and Indo-Iranian languages (indicator -i). The presence of an augment (a special verbal prefix that conveys the meaning of the past tense) contrasts the Greek, Phrygian, Armenian and Indo-Iranian languages with all others. For almost any pair of Indo-European languages, you can find a number of common linguistic features and lexemes that will be absent in other languages; the so-called wave theory was based on this observation (see Genealogical Classification of Languages). A. Meie proposed the above diagram of the dialect division of the Indo-European community.
The reconstruction of the Indo-European proto-language is facilitated by the presence of a sufficient number of ancient written monuments in the languages of different branches of the Indo-European family: from the 17th century BC, the monuments of the Hitto-Luvian languages are known, from the 14th century BC - Greek, approximately by the 12th century BC it belongs (recorded significantly later) the language of the hymns of the Rigveda, by the 6th century BC - monuments of the ancient Persian language, from the end of the 7th century BC - of the Italic languages. In addition, some languages that received writing much later retained a number of archaic features.
The main correspondences of consonants in the languages of different branches of the Indo-European family are shown in the table.
In addition, the so-called laryngeal consonants are being restored - partly on the basis of the consonants h, hh attested in the Hitto-Luvian languages, partly on the basis of systemic considerations. The number of laryngeals, as well as their exact phonetic interpretation, varies among researchers. The structure of the system of Indo-European occlusive consonants is presented differently in different works: some scientists believe that the Indo-European parent language distinguished between voiceless, voiced and voiced aspirated consonants (this point of view is presented in the table), others suggest a contrast between deaf, abruptive and voiced or deaf, strong and voiced consonants (in the last two concepts, aspiration is an optional feature of both voiced and voiceless consonants), etc. There is also a point of view according to which 4 series of stops were distinguished in the Indo-European proto-language: voiced, deaf, voiced aspirated and deaf aspirated - just as is the case, for example, in Sanskrit.
The reconstructed Indo-European proto-language appears, like the ancient Indo-European languages, as a language with a developed case system, rich verbal morphology, and complex accentuation. Both the name and the verb have 3 numbers - singular, dual and plural. problem for the reconstruction of a number of grammatical categories in the Proto-Indo-European language represents the absence of the corresponding forms in the ancient Indo-European languages - Hitto-Luvian: this state of affairs may indicate either that these categories developed in Proto-Indo-European quite late, after the separation of the Hitto-Luvian branch, or that the Hitto-Luvian languages have undergone significant changes in the grammatical system.
The Indo-European proto-language is characterized by rich possibilities of word formation, including compounding; using reduplication. The alternations of sounds were widely represented in it - both automatic and performing a grammatical function.
The syntax was characterized, in particular, by the agreement of adjectives and demonstrative pronouns with definable nouns by gender, number and case, the use of enclitic particles (placed after the first fully stressed word in a sentence; see Clitics). The word order in the sentence was probably free [perhaps the preferred order was "subject (S) + direct object (O) + verb-predicate (V)"].
Ideas about the Proto-Indo-European language continue to be revised and refined in a number of aspects - this is due, firstly, to the emergence of new data (the discovery of the Anatolian and Tocharian languages in the late 19th and early 20th centuries played a special role), and secondly, to the expansion of knowledge about the device human language in general.
The reconstruction of the Proto-Indo-European lexical fund makes it possible to judge the culture of the Proto-Indo-Europeans, as well as their ancestral home (see Indo-Europeans).
According to the theory of V. M. Illich-Svitych, the Indo-European family is an integral part of the so-called Nostratic macrofamily (see Nostratic languages), which makes it possible to verify the Indo-European reconstruction by external comparison data.
The typological diversity of the Indo-European languages is great. Among them, there are languages with a basic word order: SVO, such as Russian or English; SOV, as, for example, many Indo-Iranian languages; VSO, such as Irish [cf. Russian sentence"The father praises the son" and its translations into Hindi - pita bete kl tarif karta hai (literally - "The father of the son makes praise to eat") and into Irish - Moraionn an tathar a mhac (literally - "The father praises his son")]. Some Indo-European languages use prepositions, others use postpositions [compare Russian 'near the house' and Bengali baritar kache (literally 'at home')]; some are nominative (like the languages of Europe; see Nominative system), others have an ergative construction (for example, in Hindi; see Ergative system); some retained a significant part of the Indo-European case system (like Baltic and Slavic), others lost cases (for example, English), others (Tocharian) developed new cases from postpositions; some tend to express grammatical meanings inside a significant word (synthetism), others - with the help of special functional words (analystism), etc. In Indo-European languages, one can find such phenomena as izafet (in Iranian), group inflection (in Tocharian), opposition of inclusive and exclusive (tok-pisin).
Modern Indo-European languages use scripts based on the Greek alphabet (languages of Europe; see Greek script), Brahmi scripts ( Indo-Aryan; see Indic script), some Indo-European languages use scripts of Semitic origin. For a number of ancient languages, cuneiform writing was used (Hitto-Luvian, Old Persian), hieroglyphics (Luvian hieroglyphic language); the ancient Celts used the Ogham alphabet.
Lit. : Brugmann K., Delbrück V. Grundriß der vergleichenden Grammatik der indogermanischen Sprachen. 2. Aufl. Strasbourg, 1897-1916. Bd 1-2; Indogermanische Grammatik / Hrsg. J. Kurylowicz. HDlb., 1968-1986. Bd 1-3; Semereni O. Introduction to Comparative Linguistics. M., 1980; Gamkrelidze T. V., Ivanov Vyach. Sun. Indo-European language and Indo-Europeans: Reconstruction and historical-typological analysis of proto-language and proto-culture. Tb., 1984. Part 1-2; Beekes R.S.P. Comparative Indo-European linguistics. Amst., 1995; Meie A. Introduction to the comparative study of Indo-European languages. 4th ed., M., 2007. Dictionaries: Schrader O. Reallexikon der indogermanischen Altertumskunde. 2. Aufl. AT.; Lpz., 1917-1929. Bd 1-2; Pokorny J. Indogermanisches etymologisches Wörterbuch. Bern; Munch., 1950-1969. Lfg 1-18.
It has been established that the centers of distribution of Indo-European dialects were located in the strip from Central Europe and the northern Balkans to the northern Black Sea region.
Indo-European languages (or Ario-European, or Indo-Germanic), one of the largest linguistic families of Eurasia. The common features of the Indo-European languages, which oppose them to the languages of other families, are reduced to the presence of a certain number of regular correspondences between formal elements. different levels associated with the same content units (borrowings are excluded).
A concrete interpretation of the facts of the similarity of the Indo-European languages may consist in postulating a certain common source of known Indo-European languages (Indo-European proto-language, the base language, a variety of ancient Indo-European dialects) or in accepting the situation of a linguistic union, which resulted in the development of a number of common features in originally different languages.
The Indo-European family of languages includes:
Hitto-Luvian (Anatolian) group - from the 18th century. BC.;
Indian (Indo-Aryan, including Sanskrit) group - from 2 thousand BC;
Iranian (Avestan, Old Persian, Bactrian) group - from the beginning of the 2nd millennium BC;
Armenian language - from the 5th c. AD;
Phrygian language - from the 6th century. BC.;
Greek group - from the 15th - 11th centuries. BC.;
Thracian - from the beginning of the 2nd millennium BC;
Albanian language - from the 15th century. AD;
Illyrian language - from the 6th century. AD;
Venetian language - from 5 BC;
Italian group - from the 6th century. BC.;
Romance (from Latin) languages - from the 3rd century. BC.;
Celtic group - from the 4th c. AD;
German group - from the 3rd century. AD;
Baltic group - from the middle of the 1st millennium AD;
Slavic group - (Proto-Slavic from 2 thousand BC);
Tocharian group - from the 6th c. AD
On the misuse of the term "Indo-European" languages
Analyzing the term "Indo-European" (languages), we come to the conclusion that the first part of the term means that the language belongs to the ethnos called "Indians", and with them the same geographical concept - India. Regarding the second part of the term "Indo-European", it is obvious that "-European" means only geographical distribution language, not ethnicity.
If the term "Indo-European" (languages) is intended to indicate the simple geography of the distribution of these languages, then it is at least incomplete, since, showing the distribution of the language from east to west, does not reflect its distribution from north to south. And also misleading about the modern distribution of "Indo-European" languages, much wider than indicated in the title.
Obviously, the name of this language family should be generated in such a way that it displays ethnic composition the first native speakers, as is done in other families.
It has been established that the distribution centers of Indo-European dialects were in the band from Central Europe and the northern Balkans to the northern Black Sea region. Therefore, it should be noted that the circumstance, as a result of which the Indian languages were added to the Indo-European family of languages - only as a result of the conquests of India made by the Aryans and the assimilation of its indigenous population. And from this it follows that the contribution of the Indians directly to the formation of the Indo-European language is negligible and, moreover, harmful from the point of view of the purity of the "Indo-European" language, since the Dravidian languages \u200b\u200bof the indigenous people of India had their low-level linguistic influence. Thus, a language named using their ethnic designation by its own name leads away from the nature of its origin. Therefore, the Indo-European family of languages in terms of the term "Indo-" should be more correctly called at least "ario-", as indicated, for example, in the source.
Regarding the second part of this term, there is, for example, another reading indicating ethnicity - "-Germanic". However, the Germanic languages - English, Dutch, High German, Low German, Frisian, Danish, Icelandic, Norwegian and Swedish - although they represent a special branch of the Indo-European group of languages, differ from the rest of the Indo-European languages in their peculiar features. Especially in the field of consonants (the so-called "first" and "second movement of consonants") and in the field of morphology (the so-called "weak conjugation of verbs"). These features are usually explained by the mixed (hybrid) nature of the Germanic languages, layered on a clearly non-Indo-European foreign language basis, on the definition of which the opinions of scientists differ. It is obvious that the Indo-Europeanization of the "proto-Germanic" languages proceeded in a similar way, as in India, by the Aryan tribes. Slavic-German contacts began only in the 1st - 2nd centuries. AD , therefore, the influence of German dialects on the Slavic language in antiquity could not take place, and later it was extremely small. The Germanic languages, on the contrary, were so strongly influenced by the Slavic languages that they themselves, being originally non-Indo-European, became a full part of the Indo-European language family.
From here we come to the conclusion that instead of the second part of the term "Indo-European" (languages), it is wrong to use the term "-Germanic", since the Germans are not historical generators of the Indo-European language.
Thus, the largest and most ancient branch of languages bears its name after two non-Indo-European peoples formatted by arias - Indians and Germans, who were never the creators of the so-called "Indo-European" language.
On the Proto-Slavic language as a possible progenitor of the "Indo-European" language families
Of the seventeen representatives of the Indo-European family indicated above, the following languages cannot be the progenitors of the Indo-European language by the time of their foundation: the Armenian language (from the 5th century AD), the Phrygian language (from the 6th century BC), the Albanian language ( from the 15th century AD), the Venetian language (from the 5th century BC), the Italic group (from the 6th century BC), the Romance (from Latin) languages (from the 3rd century BC). BC), the Celtic group (from the 4th century AD), the Germanic group (from the 3rd century AD), the Baltic group (from the middle of the 1st millennium AD), the Tocharian group (from the 6th . AD), Illyrian language (from the 6th century AD).
The most ancient representatives of the Indo-European family are: the Hitto-Luvian (Anatolian) group (from the 18th century BC), the “Indian” (Indo-Aryan) group (from 2 thousand BC), the Iranian group (from the beginning 2nd millennium BC), Greek group (from the 15th - 11th centuries BC), Thracian language (from the beginning of the 2nd millennium BC).
It is worth noting the existence of two mutually differently directed objective processes in the development of the language. The first is the differentiation of languages, a process that characterizes the development of related languages in the direction of their material and structural divergence through the gradual loss of elements of a common quality and the acquisition of specific features. For example, Russian, Belarusian, and Ukrainian languages arose through differentiation on the basis of Old Russian. This process reflects the stage of the initial settlement over considerable distances of a people who were previously united. For example, the descendants of the Anglo-Saxons who moved to the New World developed their own version of the English language - American. Differentiation is a consequence of the difficulty of communicative contacts. The second process is the integration of languages, a process in which previously differentiated languages, communities that previously used different languages (dialects), begin to use the same language, i.e. merge into one language community. The process of language integration is usually associated with the political, economic and cultural integration of the respective peoples and involves ethnic mixing. Especially often the integration of languages occurs between closely related languages and dialects.
Separately, we will put the subject of our study - the Slavic group - since in the classification given it is dated to the 8th - 9th centuries. AD And this is not true, because in unanimous agreement, linguists say that "the origins of the Russian language go back to ancient times." At the same time, understanding the term "deep antiquity" clearly not a hundred or two years, but much longer periods of history, the authors indicate the main stages in the evolution of the Russian language.
From the 7th to the 14th century there was an Old Russian (East Slavonic, identified by the source) language.
"His characteristics: full accord ("crow", "malt", "birch", "iron"); pronunciation "zh", "h" in place of the Proto-Slavic *dj, *tj, *kt ("I walk", "svcha", "night"); change of nasal vowels *o, *e into "u", "i"; the ending "-t" in the verbs of the 3rd person plural of the present and future tenses; the ending "-" in names with a soft stem to "-a" in the genitive case of the singular ("earth"); many words that are not attested in other Slavic languages (“bush”, “rainbow”, “bunch”, “cat”, “cheap”, “boot”, etc.); and a number of other Russian traits.
Particular difficulties for understanding the consubstantiality of the Slavic language are created by some language classifications. So, by classification, carried out according to phonetic features, the Slavic language is split into three groups. In contrast, the data of the morphology of the Slavic languages represent the unity of the Slavic language. All Slavic languages have retained declension forms, with the exception of the Bulgarian language (apparently, due to its least developed among Slavic languages, it was chosen by the Judeo-Christians as Church Slavonic), which has only pronoun declension. The number of cases in all Slavic languages is the same. All Slavic languages are closely related lexically. A huge percentage of words are found in all Slavic languages.
The historical and comparative study of the Slavic languages determines the processes experienced by the East Slavic languages in the most ancient (pre-feudal) era and which single out this group of languages in the circle of the languages closest to it (Slavic). It should be noted that the recognition of the commonality of linguistic processes in the East Slavic languages of the pre-feudal era should be considered as the sum of slightly varying dialects. Obviously, dialects arise historically with the expansion of territories occupied by representatives of a previously one language, and now a dialecting language.
In confirmation of this, the source indicates that the Russian language until the 12th century was the GENERAL RUSSIAN language (the source called "Old Russian"), which the
“Initially, throughout its entire length, it experienced general phenomena; phonetically, it differed from other Slavic languages in full harmony and the transition of common Slavic tj and dj into h and zh. And further, the common Russian language only “from the XII century. finally divided into three main dialects, each having its own special history: northern (northern Great Russian), middle (later Belarusian and southern Great Russian) and southern (Little Russian)" [see. also 1].
In turn, the Great Russian dialect can be divided into sub-adverbs northern, or okaya, and southern, or aka, and these latter into different dialects. Here it is appropriate to ask the question: are all three dialects of the Russian language equally removed from each other and from their ancestor - the common Russian language, or is any of the dialects a direct successor, and the rest are some offshoots? The answer to this question at one time was given by Slavic studies of still tsarist Russia, which denied the independence of the Ukrainian and Belarusian languages and declared them dialects of the common Russian language.
From the 1st to the 7th centuries. the common Russian language was called Proto-Slavic and meant a late stage of the Proto-Slavic language.
From the middle of the 2nd millennium, the eastern representatives of the Indo-European family, whom the autochthonous Indian tribes called Aryans (cf. Ved. aryaman-, Avest. airyaman- (Aryan + man), Persian erman - “guest”, etc.), separated from the Proto-Slavic space, as indicated above, located on the territory of modern Rus', in the strip from Central Europe and the northern Balkans to the northern Black Sea region. Aryans began to penetrate the northwestern regions of India, forming the so-called ancient Indian (Vedic and Sanskrit) language.
In the 2nd - 1st millennium BC Proto-Slavic stood out "from a group of related dialects of the Indo-European family of languages". From the definition of the concept of "dialect" - a kind of language that has retained its main features, but also has differences - we see that Proto-Slavic is, in essence, the "Indo-European" language itself.
“Slavic languages, being a closely related group, belong to the family of Indo-European languages (among which the Baltic languages are the closest). The proximity of the Slavic languages is found in the vocabulary, the common origin of many words, roots, morphemes, in syntax and semantics, in the system of regular sound correspondences, etc. The differences - material and typological - are due to the millennial development of these languages in different conditions. After the collapse of the Indo-European linguistic unity, the Slavs for a long time represented an ethnic whole with one tribal language, called Proto-Slavic - the ancestor of all Slavic languages. Its history was longer than the history of individual Slavic languages: for several millennia, the Proto-Slavic language was the only language of the Slavs. Dialect varieties begin to appear only in the last millennium of its existence (the end of the 1st millennium BC and the 1st millennium AD) ” .
The Slavs entered into relations with various Indo-European tribes: with the ancient Balts, mainly with the Prussians and Yotvingians (long-term contact). Slavic-German contacts began in the 1st-2nd centuries. n. e. and were quite intense. Contact with the Iranians was weaker than with the Balts and Prussians. Of the non-Indo-European, especially significant were the connections with the Finno-Ugric and Turkic languages. All these contacts are reflected to varying degrees in the vocabulary of the Proto-Slavic language.
Speakers of languages of the Indo-European family (1860 million people), originating from a group of closely related dialects, in the 3rd millennium BC. began to spread in Asia Minor south of the Northern Black Sea region and the Caspian region. Given the unity of the Proto-Slavic language for several millennia, counting from the end of the 1st millennium BC. and giving the concept of "several" the meaning of "two" (at least), we get similar figures when determining the time period and come to the conclusion that in the 3rd millennium BC. (according to the 1st millennium BC) the common language of the Indo-Europeans was precisely the Proto-Slavic language.
On the basis of insufficient antiquity, none of the so-called “most ancient” representatives of the Indo-European family fell into our time interval: neither the Hitto-Luvian (Anatolian) group (from the 18th century BC), nor the “Indian” (Indo-Aryan) group (from the 2nd millennium BC), neither the Iranian group (from the beginning of the 2nd millennium BC), nor the Greek group (from the 15th - 11th centuries BC), nor the Thracian language (from the beginning of the 2nd millennium BC).
However, the source further indicates that “according to the fate of the Indo-European mid-palatal k’ and g’, the Proto-Slavic language is included in the satom group (Indian, Iranian, Baltic and other languages). The Proto-Slavic language has experienced two significant processes: the palatalization of consonants before j and the loss of closed syllables. These processes transformed the phonetic structure of the language, left a deep imprint on the phonological system, led to the emergence of new alternations, and radically transformed inflections. They took place during the period of dialect fragmentation, therefore they are not equally reflected in the Slavic languages. The loss of closed syllables (the last centuries BC and the 1st millennium AD) gave a deep originality to the Proto-Slavic language of the late period, significantly transforming its ancient Indo-European structure.
In this quotation, the Proto-Slavic language is placed on a par with the languages within the same group, which includes the Indian, Iranian and Baltic languages. However, the Baltic language is much later (from the middle of the 1st millennium AD), and at the same time it is still spoken by a completely insignificant part of the population - about 200 thousand. And the Indian language is not actually the Indian language of the autochthonous population of India, since it was brought to India by the Aryans in the 2nd millennium BC. from the northwest, and this is not from Iran at all. This is from the side of modern Rus'. If the Aryans were not Slavs living on the territory of modern Rus', then a legitimate question arises: who were they?
Knowing that the change in the language, its isolation in the form of an adverb is directly related to the isolation of speakers of different dialects, one could conclude that the Proto-Slavs separated from the Iranians or the Iranians separated from the Proto-Slavs in the middle or end of the 1st millennium BC. However, “significant deviations from the Indo-European type already in the Proto-Slavic period were morphology (mainly in the verb, to a lesser extent in the name). Most of the suffixes were formed on the Proto-Slavic soil. Many nominal suffixes arose as a result of the merger of the final sounds of the foundations (the theme of the foundations) with the Indo-European suffixes -k-, -t-, etc. , - akъ, etc. Having retained the lexical Indo-European fund, the Proto-Slavic language at the same time lost many Indo-European words (for example, many names of domestic and wild animals, many social terms). Ancient words were also lost in connection with various prohibitions (taboos), for example, the Indo-European name of the bear was replaced by the taboo medvedü - “honey eater” .
The main means of forming syllables, words or sentences in the Indo-European languages is stress (lat. Ictus = beat, stress), a grammatical term that refers to the different shades of strength and musical pitch observed in speech. Only it combines individual sounds into syllables, syllables into words, words into sentences. The Indo-European proto-language had a free stress that could stand on different parts a word that also passed into some individual Indo-European languages (Sanskrit, ancient Iranian languages, Baltic-Slavic, Proto-Germanic). Subsequently, many languages have lost much of the freedom of stress. Thus, the ancient Italic languages and Greek underwent a limitation of the primary freedom of stress by means of the so-called "law of three syllables", according to which the stress could stand on the 3rd syllable from the end, unless the second syllable from the end was long; in this last case, the stress had to change to a long syllable. Of the Lithuanian languages, Latvian fixed the stress on the initial syllable of words, which was done by individual Germanic languages, and of the Slavic languages, Czech and Lusatian; from other Slavic languages, Polish received the stress on the second syllable from the end, and from the Romance languages, French replaced the comparative variety of Latin stress (already fettered by the law of three syllables) with a fixed stress on the final syllable of the word. Of the Slavic languages, Russian, Bulgarian, Serbian, Slovenian, Polabian and Kashubian have retained free stress, and of the Baltic languages, Lithuanian and Old Prussian. The Lithuanian-Slavic languages still have a lot of features characteristic of the stress of the Indo-European proto-language.
Of the features of the dialect division of the Indo-European language area, one can note the special proximity of the Indian and Iranian, Baltic and Slavic languages, respectively, and partly of Italian and Celtic, which gives the necessary indications of the chronological framework for the evolution of the Indo-European family. Indo-Iranian, Greek, Armenian reveal a significant number of common isoglosses. At the same time, the Balto-Slavic ones have many features in common with the Indo-Iranian ones. The Italic and Celtic languages are in many ways similar to Germanic, Venetian and Illyrian. Hitto-Luvian reveals significant parallels with Tocharian, and so on. .
Additional information about the Proto-Slavic-Indo-European language can be found in sources describing other languages. For example, about the Finno-Ugric languages, the source writes: “the number of Finno-Ugric speakers is about 24 million people. (1970, est.). Similar features, which are systemic in nature, allow us to consider that the Uralic (Finno-Ugric and Samoyedic) languages are genetically related to the Indo-European, Altaic, Dravidian, Yukaghir and other languages and developed from the Nostratic parent language. According to the most common point of view, Proto-Finno-Ugric separated from Proto-Samodian about 6 thousand years ago and existed approximately until the end of the 3rd millennium BC. (when the division of the Finno-Permian and Ugric branches occurred), being widespread in the Urals and the Western Urals (hypotheses about the Central Asian, Volga-Oka and Baltic ancestral home of the Finno-Ugric peoples are refuted by modern data). The contacts with the Indo-Iranians that took place during this period ... "
The quotation should be interrupted here, since, as we have shown above, the Aryans-Proto-Slavs were in contact with the Finno-Ugric peoples, who taught the Proto-Slavic language to the Indians only from the 2nd millennium BC, and the Iranians did not go to the Urals during the specified period of time. went and themselves acquired the "Indo-European" language also only from the 2nd millennium BC. “... are reflected by a number of borrowings in the Finno-Ugric languages. In the 3rd - 2nd millennium BC the resettlement of the Finno-Permians took place in the western direction (up to the Baltic Sea) ".
conclusions
Based on the foregoing, one can indicate the origin and development of the Russian language - the language of the Russian nation, which belongs to the number of the most common languages of the world, one of the official and working languages of the UN: Russian (from the 14th century) is a historical heritage and a continuation of Old Russian (1 - 14 centuries) language, which until the 12th century. was called common Slavic, and from the 1st to the 7th centuries. - Proto-Slavic. The Proto-Slavic language, in turn, is the last stage in the development of the Proto-Slavic (2 - 1 thousand BC) language, in the 3rd millennium BC. incorrectly called Indo-European.
When deciphering the etymological meaning of a Slavic word, it is incorrect to indicate any Sanskrit as the source of origin, since Sanskrit itself was formed from Slavic by polluting it with Dravidian.
Literature:
1. Literary encyclopedia in 11 volumes, 1929-1939.
2. Great Soviet encyclopedia, " Soviet Encyclopedia”, in 30 volumes, 1969 - 1978.
3. Small Encyclopedic Dictionary of Brockhaus and Efron, “F.A. Brockhaus - I.A. Efron", 1890-1907.
4. Miller V.F., Essays on Aryan mythology in connection with ancient culture, vol. 1, M., 1876.
5. Elizarenkova T.Ya., Mythology of the Rigveda, in the book: Rigveda, M., 1972.
6. Keith A. B., The religion and philosophy of the Veda and Upanishads, H. 1-2, Camb., 1925.
7. V. V. Ivanov and V. N. Toporov, Sanskrit, Moscow, 1960.
8. Renou L., Histoire de la langue sanscrite, Lyon-P., 1956.
9. Mayrhofer M., Kurzgefasstes etymologisches Worterbuch des Altindischen, Bd 1-3, Hdlb., 1953-68.
10. encyclopedic Dictionary Brockhaus and Efron, “F.A. Brockhaus - I.A. Efron", in 86 volumes, 1890 - 1907.
11. Sievers, Grundzuge der Phonetik, LPTs., 4th ed., 1893.
12. Hirt, Der indogermanische Akzent, Strasbourg, 1895.
13. Ivanov V.V., Common Indo-European, Proto-Slavic and Anatolian language systems, M., 1965.
From the book. Tyunyaeva A.A., The history of the emergence of world civilization
www.organizmica. en
Indo-European languages
one of the largest language families, which includes: the Hitto-Luvian, or Anatolian, group; the Indo-Aryan, or Indian, group; Iranian group; Armenian language; Phrygian; Greek group; Thracian; Albanian; Illyrian; Venetian language; Italian group; Romanesque group; celtic group; german group; Baltic group; Slavic group; okhara group. The belonging of some other languages (for example, Etruscan) to the Indo-European languages remains controversial.
Indo-European languages
one of the largest linguistic families of Eurasia. The common features of I. Ya., which oppose them to the languages of other families, are reduced to the presence of a certain number of regular correspondences between formal elements of different levels associated with the same units of content (borrowings are excluded). Concrete interpretation of the facts of similarity I. Ya. may consist in postulating some common source of known I. I. (Indo-European parent language, base language, variety of ancient Indo-European dialects) or in accepting the situation of a linguistic union, which resulted in the development of a number of common features in originally different languages. Such a development could, firstly, lead to the fact that these languages began to be characterized by typologically similar structures, and, secondly, these structures received such a formal expression when more or less regular correspondences (transition rules) can be established between them. In principle, both indicated possibilities of interpretation do not contradict each other, but belong to different chronological perspectives. Composition of the Indo-European family of languages:
Hittite-Luvian, or Anatolian, group ≈ Hittite cuneiform, or Nesit, Luvian, Palaian, hieroglyphic Hittite, very close to Luwian (the oldest texts from the 18th century BC ≈ the inscription of King Anittas, further ≈ texts of ritual, mythological, historical, political, socio-economic, etc. character); Lycian, Lydian, Carian and some other languages of Asia Minor of ancient times. Apparently, we can talk about the Hittite-Lydian and Luvian-Lycian subgroups.
Indian (or Indo-Aryan) group ≈ Vedic Sanskrit (the most ancient texts ≈ the collection of hymns of the Rigveda, the end of the 2nd ≈ the beginning of the 1st millennium BC, and individual ancient Indian words in the Middle Asian sources from the middle of the 2nd millennium); the Middle Indian languages - Pali, Prakrits and Apabhransha; newind. Languages - Hindi, Urdu, Bengali, Punjabi, Sindhi, Gujarati, Marathi, Assamese, Oriya, Nepali, Sinhala, Gypsy, etc. - from the beginning of the 2nd millennium AD. e., the place of the Dardic languages of Nurnstan is not completely determined.
Iranian group: Avestan and Old Persian (the most ancient texts - the collection of sacred books Avesta, inscriptions of the Achaemenid kings, individual words from the lost Median language); Middle Iranian languages - Middle Persian (Pahlavi), Parthian, Khorezmian, Saka, Bactrian (the language of the inscription in Surkhkotal); new Iranian languages - Persian, Tajik, Pashto, Ossetian, Kurdish, Baloch, Tat, Talysh, Parachi, Ormuri, Munjan, Yaghnobi; Pamir - Shugnan, Rushan, Bartang, Yazgulyam, Ishkashim, Vakhan, etc.
Armenian language (the oldest texts from the 5th century AD onwards - religious, historical, philosophical and other texts, in particular, translated ones).
The Phrygian language (attested by separate glosses, inscriptions and proper names ≈ 6th century BC and 1≈4 centuries AD, was apparently closely related to Armenian in many respects).
Greek group: Greek, represented by a number of dialect groups - Ionian-Attic, Arcadian-Cypro-Pamphylian ("Achaean"), Aeolian, Western, including Dorian (the oldest texts - Crete-Mycenaean inscriptions from Knossos, Pylos, Mycenae, etc. , written in linear writing and dating from the 15th-11th centuries BC, as well as Homeric poems); by the 3rd c. BC e. a general Greek Koine was formed, which later gave the Middle Greek language of the Byzantine era in the 6th-15th centuries. n. e., and further ≈ Modern Greek in two varieties ≈ dimotiki and kafarevus.
Thracian (in the eastern part of the ancient Balkans, known from single words, glosses and a few brief inscriptions; ancient Dacomisian dialects are associated with Thracian;
Albanian, known from texts from the 15th century. n. e., it is possible that it was a continuation of the Thracian, although a genetic connection with Illyrian is not excluded; it is possible that other extinct dialects of the ancient Balkans were somehow connected with Thracian, cf. "Pelasgian" (restored on the basis of ancient Greek vocabulary).
Illyrian language (represented by proper names and individual words in ancient texts relating to the western part of the Balkans, and a number of inscriptions in the Messapian language in southern Italy).
Venetian (represented by inscriptions, about 200, from northeastern Italy, 5th to 1st century BC).
The Italic group: Latin, Oscan, Umbrian, Faliscan, Pelignian, etc. (the oldest texts are the inscription on the Pre-Nestine fibula, about 600 BC, the Iguva tables, the inscription from Bantia, etc.).
The Romance languages that developed from Latin are Spanish, Portuguese, French, Provençal, Italian, Sardinian, Romansh, Rumanian, Moldavian, Aromunian, and others; compare also the extinct Dalmatian.
Celtic group: Gaulish, Brittonic subgroup ≈ Breton, Welsh, Cornish; Gaelic subgroup - Irish, Scottish-Gaelic, Mank (the oldest texts - separate Gaulish words, proper names, glosses, a calendar from Coligny; Gaelic Ogham inscriptions from the 4th century AD, Irish glosses from the 7th century AD and further ≈ numerous Irish monuments).
Germanic group: East Germanic - Gothic and some other extinct dialects; Scandinavian or North Germanic ≈ Other North. and modern - Swedish, Danish, Norwegian, Icelandic, Faroese; West Germanic ≈ Old High German, Old Saxon, Old Low Frankish, Old English and modern ≈ German, Yiddish, Dutch, Flemish, Afrikaans, Frisian, English (the oldest texts ≈ runic inscriptions from the beginning of the 3rd century AD, Gothic translation of the Bible 4th century, separate glosses and brief inscriptions, etc.).
Baltic group: Western Baltic - Prussian, Yatvingian (extinct in the 17th century); East Baltic - Lithuanian, Latvian, extinct Curonian (the oldest texts - the Prussian Elbing Dictionary of the 14th century, translated religious texts from the 16th century).
Slavic group: East Slavic ≈ Russian, Ukrainian, Belarusian; West Slavic - Polish, Kashubian, Upper Lusatian, Lower Lusatian, Czech, Slovak, extinct dialects of the Polabian Slavs; South Slavic ≈ Old Slavonic, Bulgarian, Macedonian, Serbo-Croatian, Slovenian (apart from the rarest exceptions, the oldest texts date back to the 10th-11th centuries AD).
Tocharian group: Tocharian A, or Karashahr, Tocharian B, or Kuchan, in Xinjiang (texts of the 6th-7th centuries AD).
The belonging of some other languages to I. Ya. remains controversial for the time being (cf. Etruscan). Apparently, many of I. I. have long since died out (Hitto-Luvian, Illyrian, Thracian, Venetian, Oscan-Umbrian, a number of Celtic languages, Gothic, Prussian, Tocharian, etc.), leaving no traces. In historical time, I. Ya. distributed almost throughout Europe, in Western Asia, the Caucasus, Iran, Central Asia, India, etc.; later expansion I. I. led to their distribution in Siberia, North and South America, Australia, and part of Africa. At the same time, it is obvious that in the most ancient era (apparently, as early as the beginning of the 3rd millennium BC), I. I. or dialects were absent in Asia, in the Mediterranean, in Northern or Western Europe. Therefore, it is usually assumed that the centers of distribution of Indo-European dialects were located in the strip from Central Europe and the northern Balkans to the northern Black Sea region. Of the features of the dialect division of the Indo-European language area, one can note the special proximity of the Indian and Iranian, Baltic and Slavic languages, respectively, and partly of Italian and Celtic, which gives the necessary indications of the chronological framework for the evolution of the Indo-European family. Indo-Iranian, Greek, Armenian reveal a significant number of common isoglosses. At the same time, the Balto-Slavic ones have many features in common with the Indo-Iranian ones. The Italic and Celtic languages are in many ways similar to Germanic, Venetian and Illyrian. Hitto-Luvian reveals significant parallels with Tocharian, and so on.
The oldest connections I. Ya. are determined both by lexical borrowings and by the results of a comparative historical comparison of I. Ya. with such as the Uralic, Altaic, Dravidian, Kartvelian, Semitic-Hamitic languages. As a result of recent work (primarily Soviet scientists V. M. Illich-Svitych, as well as A. B. Dolgopolsky), the theory becomes probable, according to which all these families once constituted a single “Nostratic” superfamily.
Lit .: Benvenist E., Indo-European nominal word formation, trans. from Frants., M., 1955; Georgiev V.I., Studies in comparative historical linguistics, M., 1958; Ivanov V. V. Common Indo-European, Proto-Slavic and Anatolian language systems, M., 1965; Meie A., An Introduction to the Comparative Study of Indo-European Languages, trans. from Frants., M.≈L., 1938; Portzig V., Division of the Indo-European language area, trans. from German., M., 1964; Illich-Svitych V. M., Experience in comparing Nostratic languages, M., 1971; Brugmann K., Delbrück B., Grundriss der vergleichenden Grammatik der indogermanischen Sprachen, Bd 1≈5, Strass., 1897≈1916; Hirt H., Indogermanishe Grammatik, Bd 1≈7, Hdlb., 1921≈37; Kuryłowicz J., The inflectional categories of Indo ≈ European, Hdlb., 1964; Schrader O., Reallexikon der indogermanischen Altertumskunde, 2 Aufl., Bd 1≈2, V. ≈ Lpz., 1917≈29; Pokorny J., Indogermanisches etymologisches Wörterbuch, Bd 1≈2, Bern ≈ Münch., ; Walde A., Vergleichendes Wörterbuch der indogermanischen Sprachen, Bd 1≈3, Hrsg. von J. Pokorny, V. ≈ Lpz.., 1926≈32; Watkins, C., Indogermanische Grammatik, Bd 3 ≈ Formenlehre, Tl 1, Hdlb., 1969.
V. N. Toporov.
Wikipedia
Indo-European languages
Indo-European languages- the most widespread in the world language family. It is represented on all inhabited continents of the Earth, the number of speakers exceeds 2.5 billion. According to the views of some modern linguists, it is part of the macrofamily of Nostratic languages.
Old German vocabulary.
Lecture #12
1. Common Indo-European vocabulary of the Germanic languages.
2. Germano-Slavic parallel field.
3. Germano-Baltic lexicon parallels.
4. German-Baltic-Slavic parallels.
5. Germano-Celtic lexical connections.
6. German-Italic lexical parallels.
7. General German dictionary.
The sources of data on the ancient vocabulary of the Germanic languages are: 1) runic inscriptions 2) toponymy 3) records of later texts 4) modern vocabulary processed by the comparative historical method.
Vocabulary has evolved over time, it consists from different chronological layers: words common Indo-European, common Germanic, words peculiar to individual Germanic languages and etc.
Stratification is also carried out on the basis of lexical meanings according to certain semantic groups (names of household items, natural phenomena, etc.)
Common Indo-European vocabulary is based on specific meanings. They reflect the world, natural phenomena, household items, terms of kinship, numerals, etc.
1. Natural phenomena.
Sun: Goth. sunnō, lat. sōl, Greek hēliós, other - English. sunna, other Slav. slantse, dvn.sunna.
Moon: Goth. mêna, other Spanish man, lat. mensis, Greek. men, etc. - English. mona, other Slav. Month, dvn. mano,
Rain: Goth. rign, lat. rigo "irrigate", other- eng.rezn other-spanish. regn, dvn. regan, lit. rōkt: to go - about the rain, Ukr. darkness.
Cold, freezing i.e *gel: goth. kalds "cold", OE ceald, dvn. kalt, lat. gelu "cold",
lit. geluma" hard frost", other Russian golot "ice", Ukrainian necklace.
2. Names of animals.
Bear: OE bera, dvn. bego, lit. bēras, Ind.-Heb. root * ber (cf. Russian brown).
Wolf: Goth. wulfs, OE wulf, dvn. wolf, other ind. vrkas, rp. lukos, lat.lupus, other slav. vlk
3. Plants.
Beech: other English bōc-trēo "beech, tree", dvn. buohh, lat. phagus, Greek phagos, "oak", Russ. beech,
Goth. boka - developed "letter, book".
Birch: OE-Spanish - bjork, OE- beork, birce, Dvn.- birihha, st.-glory, - brza, lit. - berzas, Latvian - berzs
4. Man, body parts.
Human: lat. guma, OE zoom, dvn. gomo, lat. homo, lit. žmôgus ← from root
Heart: Goth. hairto, OE heorte, dvn. herza, lat. cor (cordis), Greek cardia, russ. heart
Daughter: Goth. danhtar, OE dohtor, other Spanish dottir, dvn. tohter, other ind. duhita,
other Prussian. dukti, daughter
Mother: other Spanish moðir, OE mōdōr, int. muoter, other ind. Matā(r), Greek meter, irl. mathir,
lit. mótina, old glory. Mamu
Son: Goth. sunus, OE sonr, OE sunu, dvn. sunu
5. Words related to the economic activities of people, domestic animals:
Livestock: Goth. skatts "money", OE skattr "money, tribute", other Saxons. skat "money",
OE scaz "money", modern German Schatz, st.-glor. livestock
Corn: Goth. kaurn, OE korn, OE corn, dvn. Korn, lat. granum, OE. gran,
lit. žirnis - pea, other Prussian. grain, st. zranno.
