Birds and animals of the tundra. Animals in the tundra. What animals live in the tundra? Elk and reindeer

Pregnancy

On December 25, when Christians celebrate Christmas, the African Republic of Mozambique celebrates Family Day. This is not surprising: 99 percent of the country's population are Mozambican peoples who adhere to African beliefs. Africa is rich in traditions. This becomes especially noticeable in the example of the family: about how the "cells of society" are built among different tribes, in today's review of "RG".

Bushmen are bush people

The Bushmen are a small group of hunting tribes in South Africa.

Ethnographers note that the tribe has no leaders. This role is assigned to the head of the family: he enjoys greater rights than the rest. In addition, the Bushmen respect the elderly people of the tribe - a storehouse of knowledge.

The community is considered one big family regardless of family relationships. The feeling of mutual assistance is extremely strong among the Bushmen. If, say, a child finds fruits, he will not eat them for anything, but will bring the find to the camp, and the elders will share the find equally.

Harsh living conditions dictate the same harsh traditions. Typically, Bushwomen breastfeed their children for several years, until the next birth, which may be in three or four years. According to the laws of the desert, a Bushwoman mother kills a newborn if he was born before the due time. In this way, it makes it possible for the previous child to survive.

Nuba - people of the hills

This is the name of a tribe that lives on the border of Sudan and South Sudan.

The Nuba have preserved rather curious family customs. Every year the tribe organizes dances where the girls choose their partners. If everything went well, and the young decided to become a family, a whole mechanism is launched. So, before calling himself a husband, a young man must build a house for his bride. Until that moment, he has no right to live with his chosen one - only to secretly visit her under the cover of night.

Even the birth of a joint child does not give grounds for the girl's family to recognize his father as the daughter's legal spouse.

Only when the house is built can the boy and girl sleep together, but - interestingly - not eat. Only a year later, when the marriage will be tested by time, it will be recognized as official and the spouses can eat, as they say, "from one pot."

Mursi inhabiting paradise

Mursi has a rather colorful mythology. According to her, the Omo Valley, where this Ethiopian tribe lives, is the Garden of Eden.

The women of this rather warlike tribe look unusual because of the traditional lip discs. There are several versions of what this custom means. According to one of them, for example, the disk shows social status family of a young woman. For example, by the type of disc, one can determine the number of cattle expected for a woman as a dowry.

According to ethnographers, after a woman with a wooden "plate" marries, she is replaced with a clay one. The diameter of the disk, by the way, can reach thirty centimeters.

Swazi performing a dance

One of the most colorful events in the Kingdom of Swaziland takes place annually in late August - early September and is timed to coincide with the moment the king chooses the next bride. It is called the "Dance of the Reed": virgins from all over the kingdom gather near the palace of the Queen Mother. The meaning of the ceremony is to show the king his beauty and ability to dance.

The current king Mswati III got only eleven wives. Probably, the European education received in Great Britain affects. For comparison: his father at one time had more than 90 wives. Moreover, each of them he built a palace.

Tuareg - descendants of the queen

This people of the Berber group lives in Mali, Niger, Burkina Faso, Morocco, Algeria and Libya. The Tuareg consider Tin Hinan, a semi-legendary queen who lived in the 4th century, to be the progenitor of their tribes.

By religion, the Tuareg are Sunni Muslims. However, they retained many pre-Islamic traditions, such as maternal inheritance. Hence the bizarre confusion: despite the fact that the Tuareg profess Islam, where polygamy is allowed, a real Tuareg marries once in a lifetime.

Echoes of matriarchy are also noticeable in the fact that women are respected in Tuareg society. Girls learn to read and write from an early age, and it is permissible for a man to be illiterate. Women own the land family values have the right to divorce her husband. In this case, not a woman, but a man leaves the house.

The Tuareg, by the way, is the only people in the world who does not have a woman, but a man must cover his face.

Hamer, believers in genies

The Hamer tribe living in southern Ethiopia believes that natural objects have a soul, in genies who can take the form of a person or an animal.

Hamer are Sunni Muslims. As a rule, women of the tribe marry men much older than themselves. A girl is formally considered a bride as soon as she turns 12.

The marital status of the representatives of the tribe can be determined by their collars. Thus, a non-removable collar made of metal and dry-cured hide goes only to the first wife. The rest wear iron hoops, the number of which indicates the serial number of the spouse. The number of wives a man has can be counted by his earrings.

Men of the tribe are allowed to have four wives. When a husband dies, his widow becomes the head of the family: she manages the affairs younger brother husband and looks after his livestock if his parents are dead. As a rule, widows do not remarry.

By the way, researchers note that morals in families are quite severe: a Hamer husband must beat his wives on certain days, thus expressing love. The more scars a woman has, the more beautiful and therefore more beloved she is considered.

Himba without writing

In the north of Namibia, near the border with Angola, the Himba tribe lives.

Himba do not need the attributes of civilization, they do not use technology and do not know writing. Their main wealth is cows. You can buy a wife for them. At the age of eight, a girl becomes a bride and is valued at four cows, and a cow at $700. As the bride grows older, the price of her increases.

Himba are allowed to have up to four wives, although the elders allow themselves six.

At the same time, as African researchers say, even decrepit old men get married: in order not to lose face, they "loan" their young wives to their eldest sons. Thus, by the age of 30, when the average Himba man starts a family, he may already have several children.

Tsamai from the Oma Valley

Among the Tsamai of rural Ethiopia, unlike most neighboring tribes, there is no custom for a girl to remain virgin until marriage. However, despite the fact that a member of the tribe is not forbidden to have a partner before marriage, if the connection led to the birth of a child, the couple is obliged to marry.

It also happens that the future spouse for the daughter is selected by her parents. At the same time, the girls are not particularly interested in the opinion of the girls: if the parents agreed among themselves, preparations for the celebration begin. It's not easy to come to an agreement. The main form of bride price is livestock. For the weight of the marriage proposal, the groom may add grain, clothing, and coffee beans. Since the area is not rich in resources, it happens that all the relatives of the future spouse help to collect the ransom.

With the exception of honeymoon, tsamai couples do not eat from the same plate.

The tribe, like many others, is polygamous: men are allowed to have several wives. At the same time, marriages between close relatives are strictly prohibited.

Is Africa. This is a huge continent, which is washed by two seas (Mediterranean and Red) and two oceans (Atlantic and Indian). On its territory there are fifty-five states, where more than a billion people live.

The peoples of this part of the world are original and unique, with their own beliefs and traditions. What is the most popular religion in Africa? And why is she so popular on the continent? What other religions of Africa do we know? What are their features?

Let's start with some interesting information about one of the hottest places in the world.

The first remains were found here. Scientists proved that humanity originated in this part of the world.

Along with the most famous world religions, such as Christianity, Islam and Buddhism, in some parts of the continent there are also exotic religions of the peoples of Africa: fetishism, ancient cults and sacrifices. Among the most unusual of them is the worship of the star Sirius, which is common among the Dogon tribe, one of the many tribes of the western part of the continent. In Tunisia, for example, Islam is considered the state religion. It is practiced by the majority of the population.

Interestingly, in one of the most exotic - Ethiopia - it is not customary to express violent emotions. On the streets and in public places one should refrain from any manifestation of feelings.

One of the most widespread religions is Islam

In the middle of the 7th century, North Africa was conquered by the Arabs. The invaders brought Islam with them. Applying various measures of persuasion to the indigenous population - exemption from taxes, obtaining certain rights, etc. - the Arabs introduced a new religion. Islam spread very quickly across the continent and in some places competed with Christianity.

Religion in Africa in the 19th century

The first European colonies appeared here in the 15th century. Since that time, Christianity began to spread in Africa. One of the key ideas of this religion - the existence of a beautiful, carefree other world - is reflected in local customs and cults. The result of this was the widespread development of Christianity. Schools were built on the continent for which they not only taught to read and write, but also introduced the new religion. By the 19th century, Christianity had already spread widely in Africa.

Common Cults and Religions of Africa

But perceiving the postulates of well-known religious beliefs, the African population continues to adhere to ancient cults:

Leader cult. It is common in many African tribes in various manifestations. The leader is treated as a sorcerer or priest, and in some parts of Africa, touching him is even punishable by death. The head of the tribe must be able to do what he cannot a common person: make rain, communicate with the spirits of the dead. If he does not cope with his duties, he may even be killed.
voodoo cult. One of the most mystical religions, originated in West Africa. It enables a person to communicate directly with spirits, but for this it is necessary to sacrifice an animal. Priests heal the sick, remove curses. But there are also cases when the voodoo religion is used for black magic.
The cult of ancestors, or spirits. It occupies an important place among the traditional religions of Africa. It is especially developed in agricultural and pastoral tribes. It is based on the belief that the human soul after death continues to exist and can move into a tree, plant or animal. The spirit of the ancestors helps in Everyday life, keeps you out of trouble.
The cult of animals, or zoolatry. It is based on a person's fear of wild predators. The leopard and snakes are especially revered.
The cult of things and objects is fetishism. One of the most widespread religions in Africa. Any thing that struck a person can become an object of worship: a tree, a stone, a statue, and more. If the object helps a person to get what he asks, then various offerings are brought to him, if not, then they are replaced with another one.
Iboga - the most unusual religion It got its name from a narcotic plant, the use of which causes hallucinations. Local residents believe that after using this remedy, the soul leaves the human body and he has the opportunity to communicate with the spirits of animals and plants.

Features of the religions of the African people

Interesting to list distinctive features religions of the peoples of Africa:

Respect for the dead. Carrying out special rituals, with the help of which they turn to the spirits for help. The dead render big influence for the existence of the living.
Lack of belief in heaven and hell, but the idea of afterlife Africans have.
Unquestioning compliance with the instructions of the elders. In general, the cultures and religions of Africa are based on the tradition of conveying the main concepts of life and society through oral stories from the elder to the younger.
Many have strong faith in Supreme Being who created the world and governs all life on earth. It can be addressed only in exceptional cases: drought, flood, threat to the life of society.
Faith in the mystical transformations of man. With the help of special cults, a person can enhance his physical and mental abilities.
Worship of objects endowed with mystical properties.
Any person can make sacrifices to the gods.
A large number of different rituals associated with different periods in a person's life: growing up, marriage, childbirth, death.
Closeness to nature and love for the earth.

The most popular traditions and customs of Africa

No other country in the world attracts such close attention of tourists. One of the reasons is a large number of interesting customs. The most curious of them are connected with wedding rituals and family life. Here are just a few of them:

The bride walks to the groom's house and carries her dowry herself.
Women gather at the house of the future husband and shout at the girl. It is believed that these actions help to find happiness for the newlyweds.
After the wedding, the husband and wife should not go out for several days.
In Ethiopia, the Hamer tribe lives, in which the more scars on the body of a woman, the happier she is considered. Weekly beatings serve as proof of the husband's love.

Information for tourists

Africa is an amazing and exotic world that attracts a huge number of travelers from all over the world. Rest here brings new unique knowledge and a lot of positive emotions, but so that your stay does not end in tears, use the following tips:

Do not speak negatively about the customs and traditions of local residents.
Many religions in Africa forbid women to walk the streets with their arms and legs open.
In order for the inhabitants to treat you with great hospitality, you need to learn a few words or phrases in the local dialect.
Be careful with hugs and kisses, in African countries it is not customary to publicly express your feelings.
Do not give money to beggars, otherwise you will be attacked by a whole crowd.
Open clothing is best left for the beach.
In order to take a picture of a place or attraction you like, you must ask the escort for permission, in many cases photography is prohibited.

Finally

The religions of Africa are diverse. The most important thing is that every resident has the right to choose the one that he likes. Of course, there are still places on the continent where various cults are worshiped and rituals are performed that are not acceptable for tourists, but in general, the religions of Africa are aimed at maintaining peace and human well-being.

New Year in Africa

All the variety of traditions of celebrating the New Year in the countries of the world comes down to the idea of solemn registration of the transition of nature, the world to the next annual cycle of existence. The meaning of this holiday is summing up the results of the next lived segment of life. Comprehension and evaluation of the sins and good deeds committed during the "reporting period", plus dreams of future new good deeds, and at the same time - who will deny? - and new sins...
Therefore, one should fundamentally distinguish New Year's festivities from those close to them in terms of Christmas. Christmas is a timeless holiday. A grateful greeting to God, who once came into the world of Man to save him and, ultimately, to die for him. Repeating every year, Christmas is nevertheless devoid of the idea of repetition and, accordingly, the obligatory element of anticipation of novelty, changes in life. Perhaps that is why - in the form of compensation - it is at Christmas that the maximum number of gifts are given today: those celebrating, as it were, associate themselves with the Magi from the biblical myth ... According to statistics, a Western person, say, spends up to 25 percent on Christmas gifts and home purchases annual budget, i.e. Christmas, contrary to its religious, theogonic essence, has become the most consumerist of all holidays... In some countries, such as the Congo, it even almost supplanted the New Year's celebrations, pulling over their sacred functions. But today let's talk more about the New Year itself. About how it is celebrated by the inhabitants and guests of Africa, as well as people from the Black Continent.

The arrival of the new year is, of course, a conditional thing, and in different regions of Africa, as well as throughout the world, this date is tied to a variety of dates and seasons. It may refer to the first date of the formal calendar, to the dates of official or mythological history, to the beginning of the rainy season, to the start of agricultural work, or the like. In many countries, as Christmas tree palm trees dress up, and in Uganda, for example, a juniper tree.

The earliest African calendar - if not the first in world history - arose in Ancient Egypt several millennia ago. The celebration of the beginning of the new year was tied to the first pre-dawn sunrise of Sirius, since it coincided with the beginning of the Nile flood, which, as you know, was of fundamental and vital importance in the life of the Egyptians. When celebrating the beginning of the year, statues of the god Amun with his wife Mut and son Khonsu were transported along the Nile for a month. After all the celebrations, the statues returned home - to the temple of Amun in Thebes.

Feast of Enkutatash (Ethiopian New Year), Ethiopia

In Ethiopia, the New Year begins on September 11th. The date is timed to coincide with the end of the big rains and the beginning of the harvest. On New Year's Eve, festive processions, all kinds of games and festivities are organized, young people compete in jumping over fire.

Currently, Ethiopia is perhaps the only state in the world where the Julian calendar is still used not only in the church, but also in secular life. The Ethiopian calendar is seven years and eight months behind our usual calendar.

Translated from the Ethiopian, Enktutatash means "Jewel Offering Day". According to legend, the date of the new year was approved by the Queen of Sheba. After her return from King Solomon from Jerusalem, enthusiastic subjects greeted her with an offering precious stones. The return of the queen was the beginning new era for Ethiopia, whose emperors descended from King Solomon and the Queen of Sheba.

The Queen of Sheba rides to Jerusalem The largest New Year's celebrations take place in the 14th-century Church of Johannes (St. John) in the city of Gaint in the state of Gondar. For three days, a colorful procession is preparing to celebrate the New Year, priests read psalms, sermons, prayers and hymns. Enkutatash is also widely celebrated near Addis Ababa, in the church of Ragual on Mount Entoto.

According to tradition, the holiday begins on the evening of September 10th. Ethiopians make fires from eucalyptus or spruce. The largest bonfire of trees, about 6 meters long, is built on the main square of Addis Ababa, and the king (governor or president), to the applause and hooting of the crowd, sets fire to this fire with a torch. Fire is a sign of warmth. Everyone looks at the flame with hope, rejoices and has fun. A powerful tree serves as a stronghold for the fire. Those gathered in the square are watching where the burnt top of the tree will fall. There is a belief that she will point to the side where there will be a big harvest in the coming year. People take it as a sign of God.

Children get ready to meet Enkutatash Early in the morning, people dressed in national clothes go to church. After church, they go home to eat injeri (white flat bread) and wat (stew) at a family meal.

But Enkutatash is not only a religious holiday. It also signifies the end of the heavy rainy season and the arrival of spring. On this day, children dress up in colorful clothes, weave wreaths of flowers and distribute them. Girls go from house to house and sing in anticipation of a monetary reward, while boys sell paintings that they themselves have painted. In the evening they go to visit friends and relatives and drink tellas (traditional Ethiopian beer). While adults are busy discussing their hopes for next year, the children go to spend the money earned. Recently, it has become customary for wealthy citizens to send each other Greeting Cards, instead of the traditional bouquet of flowers.

In the Canary Islands- Hispanic, but geographically related to the African region, - the New Year is preceded by the Day of the Innocent, similar to our April 1st. During the day on December 28, local residents uncontrollably play each other and visiting tourists. And at the time of the arrival of the New Year, according to an old Spanish custom, a local resident tries to eat twelve grapes, one for each stroke of the clock - this is necessary for the fulfillment of all desires in the new year.

In Tunisia the day before new year holidays the Sahara Festival takes place, quite spectacular, with equestrian competitions, listening to Arabic music and Arabic poetry, as well as wedding ceremonies tied to these days. In Kenya, the New Year is celebrated on the water. On this day, Kenyans bathe in rivers, lakes, in the ocean, go boating and sing. In Côte d'Ivoire, the Abidji tribe, in addition to ritual dances and meditations, holds races on all fours with a chicken egg in its mouth. At the same time, it is important not to crush the shell - a symbol of the fragility of human existence ...

You can endlessly list the features of the New Year tradition in different countries Africa. But definitely universal. African holiday New Year's Eve, already widespread everywhere where there is a black diaspora, has become KWANZA in the last decades.

"For the Motherland - the black cradle of civilization!
For the ancestors and their inextinguishable spirit!
For the elders, from whom we learn everything!
For the young who own tomorrow!
For our struggle and in memory of those who fell in it!
For the unity that guides us!
For the creator who created everything big and small!"

This hymn ends each time the celebration of Kwanzaa. The new tradition was founded by a leader in the struggle for the rights of African Americans, Professor Maulana Karenga of the University of California, in response to the persecution of African Americans in 1965 in the suburbs of Los Angeles. Its goal was to restore and develop the African identity lost by the descendants of black slaves. The concept of Kwanzaa goes back to the celebration of the first harvest, held for thousands of years in various parts of Africa; the name comes from the Swahili expression mutanda ya kwanzaa "festival of the first fruit".

Kwanzaa is celebrated by black communities around the world from December 26 to January 1. Throughout the seven nights that the holiday takes place, seven colored candles are lit in succession and seven basic principles are discussed to preserve the spirit of African first harvest ceremonies: unity, self-determination, teamwork and responsibility, joint economic activity, purpose, creativity, faith... The last day of Kwanzaa, January 1, is dedicated to reflection.

Kwanzaa is not associated with either religion or politics. This is a very philosophical and very subtle holiday, because Black Africa is the cradle of world civilization. In a house where Kwanzaa is celebrated, there should be seven symbols, each of which has a certain historical meaning: a woven rug, a football cup, sprouts, seeds, gifts, candelabra and candles. The main symbol of Kwanzaa - the Kinara menorah (not to be confused with the Jewish Menorah) - consists of a central black candle burning on the first night, three red and three green. (These are the colors of the single Pan-African flag created by Jamaican Marcus Garvey.)
Kwanzaa Myers

Kwanzaa is syncretic. Those who celebrate it originally belonged to different religions and faiths, so Christmas, Hanukkah, and other confessional holidays are usually celebrated as part of it. And in African-American communities, some imams and priests include elements of Kwanzaa in their worship services. There is reason to believe that Kwanzaa has a great future, that this holiday will eventually become one of the factors that will unite Africa itself and will contribute to the modernization of the mentality of Africans and their integration into the modern world.

Africa is the second largest continent after Eurasia, hundreds of tribes live on its territory, speak a hundred languages, and practice hundreds of cults. The difference between the traditions of the peoples of South Africa and Ethiopia is like between the Chinese and Russians, for example. Paganism, Islam, several confessions of Christianity, religious syncretism, which combined pantheism with monotheism - all this seethes here, boils and sometimes "splashes out" the most interesting splashes.
However, in the minds of the majority, the entire culture of these peoples is summarized in one phrase: “African traditions”. I'm talking about those that are in circulation in Ethiopia.

Out of marriage - outside the law
Among the tribes of the Omo Valley in Ethiopia, while premarital sex is not taboo and is widely practiced at traditional harvest festivals and other festivals, one of the strictest prohibitions is the birth of an illegitimate child - before marriage or in marriage, but not from a husband. The pregnant woman in this case is obliged to get rid of the child by having an abortion or by killing him immediately after childbirth. However, not only the presence of a husband in a woman legitimizes conception and childbirth - the obligatory observance of a whole chain of rituals, blessings and priestly approval is required in order for the born child to be accepted by the community. Otherwise, he will receive the status of a mingi - bringing misfortune to the tribe, marked by the devil - and must also be killed. There are quite a few signs by which a child will become a mingi: the lack of rituals before conception and childbirth, Blue eyes, vetiligo, and even the appearance of the first tooth from above, and not from below. Such children in Omo are taken from their mother and taken to the forest or to the river. The taboo against living in a mingi child's village is perhaps one of the strongest in the region.

Away, unclean!
As well as in monotheistic religions, most of the tribes of the Horn of Africa (Somalia and Ethiopia) and Central Africa(Chad, Cameroon, Gabon, Congo, Zaire, Angola, Central African Republic, Equatorial Guinea, Sao Tome and Principe) there is a ban on sexual relations with a woman after childbirth. She is considered unclean for 40 days if a boy is born and 80 days if a girl is born. For childbirth, a woman is forced to leave the village for the savannah, and after them she is obliged to live in a separate hut from her husband until she becomes again ritually clean and free for any physical contact.

traditional society
Unconditional and unequivocal taboo are all homosexual relationships, regardless of which African country we are talking about, as well as incest and closely related mixing on the maternal side. In the countries of the Horn of Africa, homosexuality is a criminal offense at the state level, and in pagan tribes, a young man is at best expelled from the village, at worst, they are killed. Scandals related to women are practically unknown in this case, so we can most likely talk about a more loyal attitude of society, and also about a more oppressed position of a woman in this society, who does not have the opportunity to express her sexuality.

Daughters-mothers
There are also many taboos on the relationship between family and daughters. For example, in the Hamar tribe living in the Omo River Valley in Ethiopia, daughters have the status of a shoshi - a temporary guest. And in the neighboring Dassenech tribe, almost all contacts between the daughter and mother are prohibited, and the daughter is completely transferred to the disposal of the husband and his parents. Often this leads to a ban on the daughter touching the mother. There are cases when a deceased woman had no one to bury, because of the heirs she had only daughters who were forbidden to enter the house to her mother. In principle, despite the fact that the birth of girls in a family is considered a great success and a gift from the gods (they are given in marriage, receiving a douri - a ransom, sometimes 20–30 goats, sheep or cows), sons are critically important for parents, because it is with them there is constant contact, spiritual and physical, in contrast to daughters who "cut off" from their parents when they get married.

Give them your right hand
If you ever happen to drink coffee in one of the traditional Ethiopian roadside cafes, you will surely notice not only how structured the coffee ceremony is, but also that you will be served coffee, holding the coffee pot exclusively in your right hand, supporting it under your left wrist. . Change will also be given to you exclusively with your right hand, and they will do it this way everywhere, from the metropolis of Addis Ababa to the very, very wilderness. This tradition speaks of "purity" right hand, therefore, all important actions, such as pouring coffee, transferring money, shaking hands, etc., are performed by her, and not by the left, which would be considered disrespectful and in bad taste.

Forbid them to eat
Another large group of taboos is associated with the prohibition on eating certain types of food. So, for example, in the already mentioned Hamar tribe, in the period between the engagement and the wedding, the groom is completely forbidden to eat plant foods. However, 99% of all food taboos affect women during pregnancy or lactation, or the female gender in general. Such prohibitions in popular beliefs are designed to facilitate pregnancy and childbirth, but in practice they exclude nutrients almost completely.

So, for example, in the Ethiopian highlands and the southern part of the country, among 25 (!) Ethnic groups, food white color, that is, milk, fatty meat, potatoes, bananas, porridge, etc., are completely prohibited for pregnant and lactating women, as well as children. By and large, only gray teff, corn, sorghum and a minimum amount of non-white vegetables and fruits are allowed to be eaten. Green hot peppers are also forbidden during this period, as they cause bad breath in both mother and child.

Goats for men, coffee for ladies
In addition to diet, there are certain activities that are unacceptable for women. For example, in the Hamar tribe, it is strictly forbidden for women to milk goats or sheep, collect honey, and cover the hut with grass. In the same way, there are exclusively female activities, such as cooking in jugs (men roast meat on a fire) and brewing coffee. A man who dares to brew coffee will be ridiculed by his fellow tribesmen and his social status in the tribe will be threatened.