.Piaget.

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(from 2 to 7 years old) and (from 7 to 11 years);

period of formal operations.

Definition of intelligence

Intelligence

The main stages in the development of a child's thinking

Piaget identified the following stages in the development of intelligence.

1) Sensory-motor intelligence (0-2 years)

During the period of sensory-motor intelligence, the organization of perceptual and motor interactions with the outside world gradually develops. This development proceeds from being limited by innate reflexes to the associated organization of sensory-motor actions in relation to the immediate environment. At this stage, only direct manipulations with things are possible, but not actions with symbols, representations in the internal plan.

Preparation and organization of specific operations (2-11 years old)

· Sub-period of pre-operational representations (2-7 years)

At the stage of pre-operational representations, a transition is made from sensory-motor functions to internal - symbolic, that is, to actions with representations, and not with external objects.

This stage of the development of the intellect is characterized by the dominance of assumptions and transductive reasoning; egocentrism; centralization on the conspicuous features of the subject and neglect in reasoning of its other features; focusing attention on the states of a thing and inattention to its transformations.

· Sub-period of specific operations (7-11 years)

At the stage of specific operations, actions with representations begin to be combined, coordinated with each other, forming systems of integrated actions called operations factions(for example, classification

Formal operations (11-15 years old)

The main ability that appears at the stage of formal operations (from 11 to about 15 years old) is the ability to deal with possible, with the hypothetical, and perceive external reality as a special case of what is possible, what could be. Knowledge becomes hypothetical-deductive. The child acquires the ability to think in sentences and establish formal relationships (inclusion, conjunction, disjunction, etc.) between them. The child at this stage is also able to systematically identify all the variables that are essential for solving the problem, and systematically sort through all possible combinations these variables.

The main mechanisms of cognitive development of the child

1) the mechanism of assimilation: the individual adapts new information (situation, object) to his existing schemes (structures), without changing them in principle, that is, he includes a new object in his existing schemes of actions or structures.

2) the accommodation mechanism, when an individual adapts his previously formed reactions to new information (situation, object), that is, he is forced to rebuild (modify) old schemes (structures) in order to adapt them to new information (situation, object).

According to the operational concept of intellect, the development and functioning of mental phenomena is, on the one hand, the assimilation or assimilation of this material by existing patterns of behavior, and on the other, the accommodation of these patterns to a specific situation. Piaget considers the adaptation of the organism to the environment as a balancing of the subject and the object. The concepts of assimilation and accommodation play the main role in Piaget's proposed explanation of the genesis of mental functions. In essence, this genesis acts as a succession of various stages of balancing assimilation and accommodation. .

Egocentrism of children's thinking. Experimental studies of the phenomenon of egocentrism

Egocentrism of children's thinking- a special cognitive position taken by the subject in relation to the surrounding world, when the objects and phenomena of the surrounding world are considered from their own point of view. The egocentrism of thinking causes such features of children's thinking as syncretism, the inability to focus on changes in the object, the irreversibility of thinking, transduction (from particular to particular), insensitivity to contradiction, the cumulative effect of which prevents the formation of logical thinking. Piaget's well-known experiments are an example of this effect. If, in front of the child's eyes, equal amounts of water are poured into two identical glasses, then the child will confirm the equality of volumes. But if in his presence you pour water from one glass into another, narrower one, then the child will confidently tell you that there is more water in the narrow glass.

There are many variations of such experiments, but they all demonstrated the same thing - the child's inability to focus on changes in the object. The latter means that the baby fixes well in memory only stable situations, but at the same time the process of transformation eludes him. In the case of glasses, the child sees only the result - two identical glasses with water at the beginning and two different glasses with the same water at the end, but he is not able to catch the moment of change.

Another effect of egocentrism consists in the irreversibility of thinking, i.e., the inability of the child to mentally return to the starting point of his reasoning. It is the irreversibility of thinking that does not allow our baby to follow the course of his own reasoning and, returning to their beginning, imagine the glasses in their original position. The lack of reversibility is a direct manifestation of the child's egocentric thinking.

Stage of specific operations

Stage of specific operations(7-11 years old). At the stage of specific operations, actions with representations begin to be combined, coordinated with each other, forming systems of integrated actions called operations. The child develops special cognitive structures called factions(for example, classification), thanks to which the child acquires the ability to perform operations with classes and establish logical relationships between classes, uniting them in hierarchies, whereas earlier his abilities were limited to transduction and the establishment of associative links.

The limitation of this stage is that operations can be performed only with concrete objects, but not with statements. Operations logically structure the performed external actions, but they cannot yet structure verbal reasoning in a similar way.

J. Piaget “Psychology of the intellect. The genesis of the number in a child. Logic and psychology»

1. Main provisions of the theory Zh.Piaget.

According to Jean Piaget's theory of intelligence, human intelligence goes through several main stages in its development:

Continues from birth to 2 years sensorimotor intelligence period;

from 2 to 11 years - the period of preparation and organization of specific operations, in which sub-period of pre-operational representations(from 2 to 7 years old) and sub-period of specific operations(from 7 to 11 years);

lasts from 11 years to about 15 period of formal operations.

The problem of children's thinking was formulated as qualitatively unique, having unique advantages, the activity of the child himself was singled out, the genesis was traced from "action to thought", the phenomena of children's thinking were discovered, and methods for its research were developed.

Definition of intelligence

· Intellect is a global cognitive system consisting of a number of subsystems (perceptual, mnemonic, mental), the purpose of which is to provide information support for the interaction of the individual with the external environment.

· Intelligence is the totality of all cognitive functions of an individual.

• Intelligence is thinking, the highest cognitive process.

Intelligence- flexible at the same time stable structural balance of behavior, which in essence is a system of the most vital and active operations. Being the most perfect of mental adaptations, the intellect serves, so to speak, as the most necessary and effective tool in the interactions of the subject with the outside world, interactions that are realized in the most complex ways and go far beyond the limits of direct and instantaneous contacts in order to achieve pre-established and stable relationships. .

1. According to the lecture notes.

Piaget discovered the phenomenon of egocentrism in children's thinking, which ends at the age of 5-7 years (the period of decentration). This phenomenon is due to the principles of perceptual cognition of the world (for a child main channel, connecting it with the outside world - perception; mature thinking always has decentration, i.e., the ability to “see” events from the outside, from different points of view). Egocentrism is associated with the child's attachment to the space around him (he perceives the world only in this moment and in a given situation). From the age of two, the child begins to adapt to space, thanks to which he can relate himself to different points in space (the beginning of decentration). by the most effective way development of decentralization of the child's thinking - a group game with rules that allows you to feel the situation from the point of view of different roles (for example, a game of hide and seek)

The egocentrism of the child's thinking is expressed in the fact that the center of the coordinate system for him is his own "I". Egocentrism is a clear sign of pre-conceptual thinking.

2. According to Piaget.

Egocentrism is a factor of knowledge. This is a certain set of pre-critical and, therefore, pre-objective positions in the knowledge of things, other people and oneself. Egocentrism is a kind of systematic and unconscious illusion of cognition, a form of the initial concentration of the mind, when there is no intellectual relativity and reciprocity. On the one hand, egocentrism means a lack of understanding of the relativity of cognition of the world and coordination of points of view. On the other hand, this is a position of unconscious attribution of the qualities of one's own "I". The original egocentrism of cognition is not a hypertrophy of the awareness of "I". This is a direct relation to objects, where the subject, ignoring the "I", cannot get out of the "I" in order to find his place in the world of relations, freed from subjective ties.

Piaget conducted many different experiments that show that up to a certain age a child cannot take a different point of view. For example, an experiment with a layout of three mountains. The mountains on the layout were of different heights and each of them had some kind of distinctive feature - a house, a river descending a slope, a snowy peak. The experimenter gave the subject several photographs in which all three mountains were depicted from different angles. The house, the river and the snowy peak were clearly visible in the pictures. The subject was asked to choose a photo where the mountains were depicted as he sees them at the moment, from this angle. Usually the child chose the correct picture. After that, the experimenter showed him a doll with a head in the form of a smooth ball without a face, so that the child could not follow the direction of the doll's gaze. The toy was placed on the other side of the layout. Now, when asked to choose a photograph where the mountains were depicted as the doll sees them, the child chose a photograph where the mountains were depicted as he sees them himself. If the child and the doll were interchanged, then again and again he chose a picture where the mountains were depicted as he perceives them from his place. This was the case for most of the preschoolers.

In this experiment, children became victims of a subjective illusion. They did not suspect the existence of other evaluations of things and did not correlate them with their own. Egocentrism means that the child, imagining nature and other people, does not take into account his own position as a thinking person. Egocentrism means the confusion of subject and object in the process of the act of cognition. Egocentrism shows that the outside world does not act directly on the mind of the subject. Egocentrism is a consequence of external circumstances among which the subject lives. The main thing (in egocentrism) is the spontaneous position of the subject, who directly relates to the object, not considering himself as a thinking being, not realizing his own point of view.

Piaget emphasized that the decrease in egocentrism is explained not by the addition of knowledge, but by the transformation of the initial position, when the subject correlates his point of view with other possible ones. To get rid of egocentrism means to realize what was perceived subjectively, to find one's place in the system of possible points of view, to establish a system of general mutual relations between things, personalities and one's own "I".

Egocentrism gives way to decentration, a more perfect position. The transition from egocentrism to decentration characterizes cognition at all levels of development. The universality and inevitability of this process allowed Piaget to call it the law of development. Development (according to Piaget) is a change of mental positions. In order to overcome egocentrism, two conditions are necessary: ​​first, to realize one's own "I" as a subject and to separate the subject from the object; the second is to coordinate one's own point of view with others, and not to see it as the only possible one.

3. Experimental facts.

In studies of children's ideas about the world and physical causality, Piaget showed that a child at a certain stage of development considers objects as they are directly perceived - he does not see things in their internal relations. The child thinks, for example, that the moon follows him during his walks, stops when he stops, runs after him when he runs away. Piaget called this phenomenon "realism." It is this realism that prevents the child from considering things independently of the subject, in their internal interconnection. The child considers his instantaneous perception to be true. This comes from the fact that children do not separate their "I" from things. Children up to a certain age do not know how to distinguish between the subjective and the external world. Realism is of two types: intellectual and moral. For example, a child is sure that the branches of trees make the wind. This is intellectual realism. Moral realism is expressed in the fact that the child does not take into account the inner intention in evaluating the act and judges the act only by the external effect, by the material result.

In experimental studies, Piaget showed that in the early stages of intellectual development, objects appear to the child as heavy or light according to direct perception. The child always considers large things to be heavy, and small things to be light. For a child, these and many ideas are absolute, while direct perception seems to be the only possible one. The appearance of other ideas about things, as, for example, in the experiment with floating bodies: a pebble - light for a child, but heavy for water - means that children's ideas begin to lose their absolute meaning and become relative. The child may not discover that there are different points of view that must be taken into account. Piaget asked, for example: Charles "Do you have any brothers?" - Arthur. "Does he have a brother?" - "Not". “And how many brothers do you have in your family?” - "Two". "Do you have a brother?" "One". "Does he have brothers?" - "Not at all." "Are you his brother?" - "Yes". "Then he has a brother?" - "Not".

Ticket 5.1 Hierarchy of levels of regulation of movements .

Level A Trembling (tremor) - lat. "Tremor" - trembling, rhythmic oscillatory movements of the limbs, head, tongue, etc. in defeat nervous system; may be hereditary.

Level B. An action that takes place in the coordinate system of one's own body (when the action does not need foreign objects). Objects and time are not important. Free space around the body is important. Actions have a beginning, and the end depends on “I want to continue ?!” or "I don't want to!". Distant sensations are not needed, kinesthetic sensations (muscles) are regulated. Example: pull-ups, facial expressions (funny or sad); oriental dances, belly dance, modern dances. No outside world needed!

The most ancient in phylogenetic terms - level A, which is called the level of “paleokinetic regulation”, or rubrospinal, after the name of the anatomical “substrates” that are responsible for building movements at this level: the “red core” is the “highest” regulatory instance of this level of building movements, to which other subcortical structures. The system of these structures ensures the receipt and analysis of proprioceptive information from the muscles, holding a certain posture, some fast rhythmic vibrational movements (for example, vibrato among violinists), as well as a number of involuntary movements (shivering from cold, shivering, chattering teeth from fear). Level A in humans is almost never the leading level of building movements.

Second - level B- is also called the level of "synergy and stamps", or the thalamo-pallidar level, since its anatomical substrate is the "visual tubercles" and "pale balls". He is responsible for the so-called synergies, i.e. highly coordinated movements of the whole body, for rhythmic and cyclic movements such as "walking" in infants, "stamps" - for example, stereotypical movements such as bending, squats. This level provides an analysis of information about the location of individual limbs and muscles, regardless of the specific conditions for the implementation of the corresponding movements. Therefore, he is responsible, for example, for running in general (say, for running in place) as a variable work of various muscle groups. However, real running takes place on some specific surface with its own bumps and obstacles, and in order for it to become possible, it is necessary to connect other, higher levels of movement construction. This level is also responsible for the automation of various motor skills, expressive facial expressions and emotionally colored pantomime movements.

Topic 7. Theories of convergence of social and biological factors

1. The theory of development of V. Stern.

2. The theory of cognitive development by J. Piaget.

7.1. Theory of development of V. Stern

V. Stern tried to overcome the one-sidedness of the previous theories of development and formulated the theory of two factors.

ü Development is the result of convergence (rapprochement) of internal, hereditary factors with environmental conditions.

ü Mental development is self-development, self-deployment of the inclinations that a person has, directed and determined by the environment in which the child lives.

ü Development is determined by X - units of heredity Y - units of the environment.

Four main provisions of the theory of development of V. Stern:

1. Exist two hereditarily predetermined goals: 1) the desire for self-preservation, 2) the desire for self-development, including physical growth and spiritual maturation. The tendency to self-development causes the emergence and development of new, more adaptive and perfect abilities. The trend towards self-preservation stabilizes development achievements.

2. The ratio of inclinations and abilities. Inclinations are determined by heredity and set the upper limit of the development of human abilities. The environment slows down or promotes the development of inclinations. But even under adverse conditions, "talent will always find its way."

3. The pace of mental development is determined by heredity. But the neglect of education significantly slows down the pace of development, leading to the fact that the upper limit of the development of abilities, determined by inclinations, is not reached.

4. The sequence and content of the stages of development are determined by heredity.

In the concept of V. Stern, the factor of heredity plays a leading role, and the environment only contributes to the manifestation of inclinations as potential development opportunities.

The mechanism of mental development - introception- connection by the child of his internal goals with the goals of the environment. The child grows old to take from the environment everything that corresponds to his potential abilities, putting a barrier in the way of what contradicts them.

Usage twin method to test the theory of convergence of two factors. Comparison of the development of twins with identical (monozygous) and different (dizygotic) heredity, brought up in the same and different (separated twins) environmental conditions. conclusions: 1) it is necessary to expand the determinants that determine the patterns of the mental development of the child, 2) the influence of the environment is not direct, but is mediated by the active effective position of the child himself.

7.2. J. Piaget's theory of cognitive development

The intellect has an adaptive nature and performs the function of balancing the organism with the external environment.

Development mechanisms: 1) assimilation – inclusion of the object in the existing schemes of action, 2) accommodation– changing the scheme of action in accordance with the characteristics of the object. Assimilation provides stabilization and preservation. Accommodation is growth and change. Balancing assimilation and accommodation results in the adaptation of the organism to the environment.

Development is determined by a complex system of determinants: heredity, environment and activity of the subject.

Development is an active construction process in which children build increasingly differentiated and comprehensive cognitive structures or schemas.

Scheme- any pattern (drawing, sample) of action that provides contact with the environment.

Intelligence Development- a successive change of stages, reflecting various logical structures of thinking, ways of processing information. The ultimate goal of the development of thinking is the formation of formal-logical operations.

Children's thinking is shaped by learning organized by adults (environmental factor), which is based on the level of development achieved by the child (heredity factors). At the same time, children interact with the environment, building their own cognitive structures (activity factors).

Stages of intellectual development of the child:

Periods	stages	Stage content
I. Sensorimotor intelligence (0-24 months)	1. Exercise of reflexes (0-1 month).	Launching innate action patterns - unconditioned reflexes
2. Elementary skills, primary circular reactions (1-4 months).	Coordination by the child of parts of his body, coordination of individual movements into a single scheme of action
3. Secondary circular reactions (4-10 months).	Reproduction of movements outside one's body, "prolongation of interesting spectacles"
4. The beginning of practical intelligence (10-12 months).	Coordination of two independent schemes of actions to achieve a result
5. Tertiary circular reactions (12-18 months).	Experimenting with actions, observing the results of experimentation
6. The beginning of the internalization of schemes (18-24 months).	Assimilation of methods of action with objects, preservation in memory of images of objects and methods of action
II. Representative Intelligence and Specific Operations (2-11 years old)	1. Pre-operational intelligence (2-7 years).	Thinking based on symbols, images, having an illogical, non-systemic character. Egocentric thinking of the child.
2. Specific operations (7-11 years).	Manifestation of systematic thinking in a situation of operating with specific objects.
III. Formal operations (11-15 years old)		Formation of formal-logical structures, abstract thinking, hypothetical-deductive logic.

Piaget's greatest discovery is the discovery of the phenomenon of egocentrism in children's thinking.

ü Egocentrism- a special cognitive position taken by the subject in relation to the surrounding world, when phenomena and objects are considered by him only from his own point of view.

ü Egocentrism- a set of pre-critical, pre-objective positions in the knowledge of other people's things, oneself.

ü Egocentrism- this is the absolutization of one's own cognitive perspective and the inability to coordinate different points of view on the subject.

Characteristics of a child's egocentric thinking:

1. Syncretism(unity) of children's thinking - the perception of the image without analyzing the details, the tendency to connect everything with everything.

2. juxtaposition- the tendency to associate everything with everything.

3. intellectual realism- identification of one's ideas about things with real objects.

4. Animism- general excitement.

5. Artificalism- idea of ​​artificial origin natural phenomena.

6. Insensitivity to contradictions.

7. Impenetrable to experience.

8. transduction- the transition from the particular to the particular, bypassing the general.

9. Causality- inability to establish causal relationships.

10. Weakness of introspection(self-observation).

Piaget's theory of the development of intelligence is the most developed and influential of all known theories of intellectual development, in which ideas about the internal nature of intelligence and its external manifestations are consistently combined. In order to better appreciate the contribution to psychological science in general and to the development of the psychology of thinking in particular, let us turn to the statements of two well-known experts in this field.

“A paradox is known,” writes L. F. Obukhova, according to which the authority of a scientist is best determined by how much he slowed down the development of science in his field. Modern foreign psychology of childhood is literally blocked by Piaget's ideas. ... No one manages to break out of the limits of the system he has developed,” emphasizes the author.

“The irresistible and attractive power of the works and ideas of J. Piaget,” according to N. I. Chuprikova, is primarily in the breadth of the reality captured by his analysis, in the facts described by him, in ... the level of generalization and interpretation. At this level, through the facts and their interpretation, the action of strict and immutable laws of development visibly shines through. The “strict and immutable laws of development” discovered by Jean Piaget also “slowed down” the development of science on the mechanisms of the child’s cognitive development from birth to adolescence inclusive. Let's turn to the theory itself.

Piaget's theory of the development of the intellect is, first of all, a dynamic concept of the development of the intellect, considering the process of its formation in the course of the individual development of the child. This approach is called genetic. J. Piaget's concept provides answers to burning questions human cognitive development:
- whether the subject is able to distinguish the internal, subjective world from the external and what are the boundaries of such a distinction;
- what is the substratum of the ideas (thoughts) of the subject: are they the product of the acting on the mind outside world either they are the product of the subject's own mental activity;
- what are the relationships between the thought of the subject and the phenomena of the external world;
- what is the essence of the laws to which this interaction is subject, in other words, what is the origin and development of the basic scientific concepts that a thinking person uses.

The central of the provisions of the concept of J. Piaget is the provision on the interaction between the organism and environment or balance statement.

The external environment is constantly changing, says Piaget. The organism, i.e. entity that exists independently external environment(object), seeks to establish a balance with it. It is possible to establish equilibrium with the environment in two ways: either by adapting the external environment to itself by the subject by changing it, or by changing the subject himself. Both that and another is possible, only by fulfillment by the subject of certain actions. Performing actions, the subject thereby finds ways or schemes of these actions that allow him to restore the disturbed balance. According to Piaget, the scheme of action is the sensorimotor equivalent of a concept, a cognitive skill. “She, (the scheme of action), - comments L. F. Obukhova, - allows the child to act economically and adequately with objects of the same class or with different states of the same object.” If the child is affected by an object of another class, then in order to restore the disturbed balance, he is forced to perform new actions and thereby find new schemes (concepts) that are adequate to this class of objects. So, action is an "intermediary" between the child and the surrounding world, with the help of which he actively manipulates and experiments with real objects (things, their shape, properties, etc.). Indeed, when a child encounters problems (objects) that are new to him and that violate his already established ideas about the world (disturb the balance), this makes him look for answers to them. The "knocked out of balance" child tries to balance himself with this changed environment by explaining it, that is, by developing new schemes or concepts. The different and ever more complex methods of explanation used by the child are the stages of his cognition. Thus, the need to restore balance by the subject is the driving force of his cognitive (intellectual) development, and the balance itself is an internal regulator of the development of intellect. That is why Piaget's intellect is "the highest and most perfect form of psychological adaptation, the most effective ... tool in the subject's interactions with the outside world," and thought itself is "a compressed form of action." The development of action schemes, in other words, cognitive development occurs “as the child’s experience in practical action with objects grows and becomes more complex” due to “the internalization of objective actions, i.e. their gradual transformation into mental operations (actions performed internally)” .

From what has been said, it is clear that the very schemes of actions, operations, i.e. the concepts discovered by the subject as a result of his actions are not innate. They are the result of objective actions performed by an active subject when interacting with an object. Therefore, the content of mental concepts is determined by the characteristics of this object. An innate character is the activity of the subject, fixed in him by the genetic program of development. Consequently, the pace of the child's cognitive development is determined, firstly, by the level of his activity, the degree of maturation of the nervous system, secondly, by the experience of his interaction with the objects of the external environment affecting him, and, thirdly, by language and upbringing. Thus, we do not see anything innate in the level of development of the intellect. It is only innate that the intellect (cognitive development) is able to function. And the way of this functioning and the level of its achievements will be determined by the action of the listed factors. Therefore, all children go through the stages of cognitive development in the same sequence, but the methods of their passage and intellectual achievements will be different for everyone due to different conditions of their development.

So, we found out that the cognitive development of the subject is necessary condition his adaptations. In order to adapt, i.e., to solve new problems, the organism must either modify its existing schemes of activity (concepts) or develop new ones. Thus, there are only two adaptation mechanisms. The first of these is the mechanism of assimilation, when an individual adapts new information (a situation, an object) to his existing schemes (structures) without changing them in principle, i.e., he includes a new object in his existing schemes of actions or structures. For example, if a newborn, a few moments after birth, can grab an adult's finger put into his palm, just like he can grab the parent's hair, a cube put into his hand, etc., i.e. each time he adapts new information to existing action plans. And here is an example illustrating the operation of the mechanism of assimilation in the early childhood. At the sight of a fluffy spaniel, the child screams: "Doggy." He will say the same thing when he sees a fluffy setter or collie. But when he first sees a fur coat, he will again say “dog”, because. according to his system of concepts, everything fluffy is a dog. In the future, in addition to the characteristics - fluffy, a whole set of others are built into the concept of "dog": soft, four-legged, lively, friendly, tail, wet nose, etc. Thus, the concept is being improved, which allows us to further differentiate it from the concept of "fur coat".

The other is the accommodation mechanism, when an individual adapts his previously formed reactions to new information (situation, object), i.e. he is forced to rebuild (modify) old schemes (structures) in order to adapt them to new information (situation, object). For example, if a child continues to suck on a spoon in order to satisfy hunger, i.e. try to adapt the new situation to the existing sucking pattern (assimilation mechanism), then soon he will be convinced that such behavior is ineffective (he cannot satisfy the feeling of hunger and thereby adapt to the situation) and he needs to change his old pattern (sucking), i.e. modify the movements of the lips and tongue in order to pick up food from the spoon (accommodation mechanism). Thus, a new scheme of action (a new concept) appears. Obviously, the functions of these two mechanisms are opposite. Thanks to assimilation, the existing schemes (concepts) are refined and improved, and thus balance with the environment is achieved by adapting the environment to the subject, and thanks to accommodation, restructuring, modification of existing schemes and the emergence of new, learned concepts. The nature of the relationship between them determines the qualitative content of human mental activity. Actually logical thinking as the highest form of cognitive development is the result of a harmonic synthesis between them. In the early stages of development, any mental operation is a compromise between assimilation and accommodation. The development of the intellect is the process of the maturation of operational structures (concepts), which gradually grow out of the child's objective everyday experience against the background of the manifestation of these two main mechanisms.

According to Piaget, the process of development of the intellect consists of three large periods, within which the emergence and formation of three main structures (types of intellect) takes place. The first of these is sensorimotor intelligence, the duration of which is from birth to 2 years.

Within this period, the newborn perceives the world without knowing himself as a subject, without understanding his own actions. Real for him only that which is given to him through his sensations. He looks, listens, touches, smells, tastes, screams, hits, crushes, bends, throws, pushes, pulls, sprinkles, performs other sensory and motor actions. At this stage of development, the leading role belongs to the direct sensations and perception of the child. His knowledge of the world around him is formed on their basis. Therefore, this stage is characterized by the formation and development of sensitive and motor structures - sensory and motor abilities. One of the main questions is about the initial or primary patterns of action that allow the newborn to establish balance in the first hours and days of his life.

They, according to Piaget, are the reflexes of the newborn, with which he is born, and which allow you to act expediently in a limited number of situations. But since there are few of them, he is forced to change them and form new, more complex schemes on their basis. For example, by combining innate sucking and grasping reflexes, a newborn learns, firstly, to drag objects into his mouth. Secondly, this new scheme, combined with innate visual control, allows the child to use the nipple himself and, thirdly, to switch to a new type of feeding - from a spoon. There are 6 stages within sensorimotor intelligence.

1. Stage of exercise of reflexes (0-1 month). The example above was already given with a newborn who grabbed the parent's finger put into his hand, as well as any other object. If you touch his lips with your finger, he will begin to suck on it, just like any other object. The behavior of the newborn is subject to "mastering" all objects in contact with him with the help of innate reflexes (action patterns) of sucking and grasping (assimilation). He does not distinguish objects from each other and therefore treats everyone the same. Piaget believed that at this stage, children "exercise" those skills that they now possess, and since there are few of them, they repeat them over and over again.

2. Stage of primary circular reactions (1-4 months). The baby already distinguishes between sucking a blanket and a pacifier. Therefore, when he is hungry, he pushes back the blanket, preferring his mother's breast. He "becomes aware" of the existence of his fingers by bringing them to his mouth. He slowly sucks his thumb. He turns his head in the direction of the sounds made by the mother, and follows her movements around the room.

Obviously, all these are new patterns of action by which the baby adapts to his environment. He demands breasts, because “understood” that some objects he suckles give milk, while others do not. He intentionally raises and directs his thumb into his mouth. Finally, he follows the mother, which indicates visual-auditory coordination. All this is the result of accommodation. However, if the mother leaves the room or the favorite toy disappears from sight, then the baby does not react to this in any way, as if they never existed.

3. Stage of secondary circular reactions (coordination of vision and grasping) (4-8 months).

Accidentally hitting the sound "tumbler" with his hand, the baby heard its melodic sound, which attracted his attention. He touched the toy again, and again the pleasant sounds were repeated. By repeating this movement many times, the baby “understands” that there is some connection between pushing the “roly-poly” and the music that it makes. Thus, at this stage, the child performs purposeful and, moreover, coordinated actions. Already famous schemes coordinated by the child in order to obtain the desired result. Behavior is still random (accidentally hit the "tumbler"). But if the child liked the result (music), then the action is repeated, until the need is met (balance is established).

Another aspect of development at this stage. An 8-month-old baby can find his favorite toy hidden in front of his eyes. If you cover it with something, he will find it in this place. At this stage, the child can "guess" the location of moving objects. For example, if a moving toy is hidden behind some object, then the child stretches his hand to the place where it should appear, "anticipating" its appearance. Thus, the fundamental difference between behavior at this stage and the previous one is that if before that it arose in response only to the direct contact of objects with the child's body, now it is provoked by objects located in space and not directly in contact with the child's body. In addition, the child begins to develop an idea of ​​the constancy of objects, that is, the realization that objects exist even if they cannot be seen. In other words, these are the first steps towards the objectification of the world and the subjectivization of one's own "I". The most important acquisition at this stage is the development of a reaction of anticipation.

4. Stage of coordination of secondary schemes (beginning) (8-12 months).

Piaget gives the following example with his 8 month old daughter. “Jacqueline is trying to grab the pack of cigarettes that I showed her. Then I place the pack between the intersecting rods that secure the toys to the top rail of the crib. She wants to get a pack, but, having not succeeded, she immediately looks at the bars, between which the object of her dreams sticks out. The girl looks ahead, grabs the rods, shakes them (means). The tutu falls and the baby grabs it (target). When the experiment was repeated, the girl had the same reaction, but without trying to grab the pack directly with her hands.

As you can see, the girl has invented means (pulls out rods from a wicker bed) to achieve a specific goal (get a pack). She already had two schemes in hand - aimlessly pulling out the rods and trying to grab a pack of cigarettes. Coordinating them among themselves, she formed a new scheme (behavior).

Thus, at the 4th stage of development, there is a further improvement of purposeful and arbitrary actions.

5. Stage of tertiary circular reactions (appearance of new drugs) (1 year - 1.5 years).

The child's behavior becomes inquisitive: he carefully examines each new object before accepting or rejecting it. Experimentation is, in fact, the emergence of new mental schemes, the beginning of the actual mental activity. If before this stage the child's behavior was predominantly reflex in nature, then thanks to the ability to find new ways of interacting with unknown objects, the child easily reconfigures to situations unfamiliar to him. At this stage, the child develops the ability to adapt to a new situation, most often through trial and error.

6. The stage of invention of new means (the beginning of the symbolic) (1.5-2 years).

At this stage, the thinking and behavior of children are completely dependent on new information received by them both through the senses and through motor activity. Symbolic thinking allows the child to repeatedly reproduce the imprinted images-symbols of objects. For example, many parents remember how their one and a half year old child repeatedly repeated the same scene he loved: imagining a cookie in his hands, which in reality was not there, he repeatedly gave it to your mouth, and in response to this you said to him Thanks. At this stage, the baby does mental operations not so much with specific objects as with their images. The constant trial-and-error experiments that characterize stage 5 give way to the ability to solve simple problems in your mind, based on images of objects. However, the transition from concrete-sensual thinking to figurative thinking is a long process that develops for about 2 years.

So, the course of intellectual development during the first two years of life goes from to conditional, their training and development of skills, the establishment of coordinated relationships between them, which gives the child the opportunity to experiment, i.e. perform actions like trial and error, and the emerging opportunity to anticipate development in a new situation, coupled with the existing intellectual potential, creates the basis for symbolic or pre-conceptual intelligence.

social environment is not just a condition, but the most important factor personality development.

the driving forces of personality development are two innate unconscious needs that are in a state of antagonism - this need for rooting(to strive for society, to relate oneself with other members of this society, to strive for a common system of guidelines, ideals and beliefs with them) and the need for individualization(pushes a person to isolation from others, to freedom from the pressure and demands of society). These two needs are the cause of internal contradictions, a conflict of motives in a person.

A person's desire to reconcile these needs is the engine not only of individual development, but of society as a whole, since all social formations that are created by man are just attempts to balance these aspirations.

at the beginning of his development, man was a part of nature, not separating himself from the environment. Only during this period was he happy, since the desire for rootedness in nature was combined with the possibility of isolation from fellow tribesmen. Having destroyed his connection with nature, man left for himself only one possibility of rootedness - social, thereby making himself dependent on the people around him. At the same time, the first system, the primitive one, gave an advantage precisely to the desire for rootedness, leaving the desire for individualization in the shade. Not reconciled to this, a person changes the system, and in the slave system he has the possibility of individualization in wealth, in war. But at the same time, the possibility of rooting with others decreases, the bonds between people become less strong. Suffering from such isolation, people again change the social system, coming to feudalism, in which the possibility of rooting is great, since each person is rigidly connected with members of his social group. At the same time, such rigid stereotyping does not allow a person's individuality to be fully manifested, since he cannot go beyond the boundaries of his class. Striving for freedom and independence from these rigid limits, people are moving to capitalism, which gives them the maximum opportunity for their free development, although it limits their ability to take root with others, leaving them alone with their freedom in a hostile world.

Thus, the attitude of society towards a person is manifested in the fact that his personality develops in accordance with the opportunities that this society provides him. Thus, under capitalism, a person can achieve a sense of his individuality by making a career or making a fortune. At the same time, he can also become rooted, taking the place of an employee in a large firm. True, Fromm emphasizes, rootedness under capitalism is relative, since employees of a large firm are rarely united in their worldview. That is why he believes that the possibilities of individualization in this system develop to the detriment of rootedness, which a person begins to yearn for, trying to escape from the acquired freedom. This "flight from freedom", characteristic of a society where everyone is a stranger to each other, is manifested not only in the desire of people to get a reliable job, but also in identification with the head of the company or politician who promise subordinates reliability, stability and rootedness. Such a desire to escape from freedom, which turns out to be too difficult for a person, explained Fromm and the emergence of fascism, which he observed in the 1930s. in Germany.

Two-factor theories: Antagonism in early Piaget's theory.

Society and the individual are in a state of confrontation. Socialization is the process of forcible displacement of the natural and its replacement with the social. In the late period (since the beginning of the 1940s), the scientist considered the activity of the subject as the basis for the development of intelligence, offering more complex system determinant of intelligence development.

Before Piaget, the child's thinking was seen as "under-adult". The merit of Piaget, according to LSV, is that he began to consider thinking as qualitatively different.

Initial postulate: thinking is directly expressed in speech (later he refused). The method of studying thinking is the method of clinical conversation. Requirements:

The questions should be far from the practical experience of the child. You can not ask questions that are related to knowledge, skills, skills;

The conversation should be organized as an experiment. Asking a question, the researcher tests a certain hypothesis about the factors and causes of thinking. Because of this, there is no rigid sequence in the questions.

3 sources of Theory:

1) French sociological school: the development of the child's thinking is carried out by assimilating collective representations (socialized forms of thought) in the course of verbal communication (Durkheim had about consciousness, but Piaget replaced it with thinking)

2) Freud: initially, thinking is aimed at obtaining pleasure, then this type is supplanted by society, and its other forms are imposed on the child, corresponding to the principle of reality (he also replaced consciousness with thinking)

3) Levy-Bruhl: he spoke about the qualitative originality of primitive thinking, and Piaget transferred it to the child.

Development of the child's thinking- this is a change of mental positions, which is characterized by the transition from egocentrism to decentration. It is carried out by assimilating collective representations (socialized forms of thought) in the course of verbal communication. Egocentrism (Piaget's discovery) is a special cognitive position occupied by the subject in relation to the surrounding world, when phenomena and objects are considered only from their own point of view. This is the absolutization of one's own cognitive perspective and the inability to coordinate different points of view on the subject.

Stages of development of thinking:

1) identification of subject and object, inability to separate oneself and the world;

2) egocentrism - knowledge of the world based on own position, inability to coordinate various points of view;

3) decentration - coordination of one's own point of view with other possible views on the object.

Directions for the development of thinking:

Realism (thing = I see) à objectivity (characteristics of the object + my feelings)

Absolutization (own position) à reciprocity (there are many SPs, their coordination)

Realism (perception of individual objects) Relativism (perception of relationships between objects)

Characteristics of a child's thinking that make up his qualitative originality:

1) syncretism - a spontaneous tendency of children to perceive global images without analyzing details, a tendency to connect everything with everything, without proper analysis (“lack of communication”);

2) juxtaposition - inability to unite and synthesize ("excess connection");

3) intellectual realism - the identification of one's ideas about things in the objective world and real objects. Analogous to intellectual is moral realism;

4) participation - the law of participation ("there is nothing accidental");

5) animism as universal animation;

6) artificialism as an idea of ​​the artificial origin of natural phenomena. (Why is the moon high? Someone hung it there)

7) insensitivity to contradictions;

8) impenetrability to experience;

9) transduction - the transition from a particular position to another particular, bypassing the general;

10) precausality - inability to establish causal relationships. (A man suddenly fell on the street because ... he was taken to the hospital);

11) weakness of children's introspection (self-observation).

Periodization of the development of thinking:

1. Autistic (0 - 2-3 years): innate, pleasure principle. Not directed to the outside world (fantasies), the unit of thinking is an image (non-verbal figurative thinking)

2. Egocentric (2-3 - 11-12 years old): repression of the autistic;

3. Socialized (after 12 years): the principle of reality, aimed at the knowledge and transformation of the external world, the unit of thinking is the concept (verbal thinking)

2 phases of egocentric thinking:

1) 3-7 (8) years old: at 2-3 years old, an adult imposes verbal ways of thinking and ready-made constructions on the child, displacing autistic thinking. The main factor in the development of thinking is coercion. The principle of pleasure and reality are juxtaposed, while there is no hierarchization yet. In the game, fantasies and dreams, the child lives as if in reality. Egocentrism dominates both in the sphere of action and in the sphere of thinking and speech.

2) 7-12 years old: the child's relations with peers as potentially equal partners, relations of cooperation and cooperation come to the fore. No one can force anyone to accept their point of view, the only way is to agree. There is a need for coordination of different mental positions and is achieved through the mechanism of successive centralizations. Here the principle of pleasure and the principle of reality begin to hierarchize, and initially the principle of reality conquers the sphere of perception and action, and only then - thinking.

The problem of the ratio of factors H and C in the child's mental development raises the problem of the activity of the subject, his role in his own development.

Egocentric speech in Piaget and LSW:

Criticism of LSV:

Need to take into account practical activities à operational stage

Autistic thinking is not stage 1

Speech and thinking are more closely related