Bosnia and Herzegovina (Bosnian and Croatian Bosna i Hercegovina, BiH, Serbian Bosna and Herzegovina, BiH) is a state in the central part of the Balkan Peninsula.

Consists of autonomous administrative units of the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina, the Republika Srpska and the Brcko District. The name of the country comes from the name of the river Bosna and the German title "duke", which was worn by the governor Stefan Vukcic Kosacha in the 15th century. It borders Croatia in the west and north, Serbia in the east, and Montenegro in the southeast. It has a small outlet to the Adriatic Sea - about 24.5 km of coastline. Area - 51 thousand square meters. km. Large cities - Tuzla, Banja Luka, Mostar, Zenica, Bihac, Travnik. The monetary unit of Bosnia and Herzegovina is Bosnia and Herzegovina is located on the territory of two historical regions - Bosnia, which occupies the valley of the Sava River and its tributaries, and Herzegovina, located to the south, in the Neretva River basin. The capital is the city of Sarajevo (about 800 thousand people). The city of Sarajevo was founded in 1263 and then received the name "Bosnovar" (Vrhbosna in Serbian). The city is located in a basin surrounded by mountains and open only from the western side, at an altitude of 450 m above sea level. Two Orthodox churches have been preserved - the old Church of Saints Michael and Gabriel (presumably 1478-1539) and the Cathedral Church of the Holy Mother of God (1863-1868), 4 Catholic churches, including the spiritual center of Bosnian Catholics - the Cathedral (XVIII century) , 3 synagogues, including the Old Synagogue (1566-1581), which now houses the Jewish Museum with the famous "Hagad Code", as well as the Town Hall ("Vechnitsa", 1896) in the Moorish style and the Regional Administration Palace.

But the urban landscape is dominated by colorful Muslim buildings, most of which are considered masterpieces of Ottoman architecture - the Tsareva-Jamia mosque ("Royal Mosque", XVI century), the largest in the country, "Begova-Jamia" (XV century), Ali- Pasha-Jamia (1560-1561) and about a hundred more mosques, the Kursumli madrasah (1537) with a library, which today has about 50 thousand manuscripts and books, the Barcharshiya tower (XV century), the Brusa-Bezistan shopping center, the old caravan a barn (XV c) on Morika-Khan, a Turkish fortress with 12 towers on a rocky ledge, and many trading buildings of the Turkish era.

Surrounded by scenic mountains Igman(height up to 1502 m.) and Trebovich, which protect the resort from cold winds, this geographical center of the former Yugoslavia is widely known as one of the best thermal resorts in Europe.

Medieval city ​​of Yajce, which is a colorful mixture of old houses on the mountain slopes, cobbled streets and fortress walls, was the capital of the Christian rulers of Bosnia until the 15th century. Here, on the banks of the Pliva and Vrbas rivers, during the Nazi occupation, the temporary capital of the country was located, here the capital of independent Yugoslavia was proclaimed and the Constitution was created, which formalized the principles of the new federal country. The arena of fierce battles of the recent war, the city still incomprehensibly retained its ancient appearance, still attracting the attention of tourists. The main sights of Yajce are the famous Esma-Sultan Mosque (1753-1763), the Church of St. Luke, many colorful old houses, as well as a cascade of small but very colorful waterfalls and a complex of ancient water mills on the Pliva River.

Mostar- the unofficial capital of southern Herzegovina and the second largest city in the country. It was founded, approximately, in the XV-XVI centuries as a bridgehead on the trade route between the Adriatic coast and the hinterland of the Dinaric Highlands. The ancient district of Kuyunjiluk is literally replete with monuments of Islamic architecture: medieval buildings, cobbled streets and shops in a colorful oriental style. The visiting card of the city is the Stari-bridge, arching its steep back 20 meters above the green waters of the Neretva. This unique engineering structure of the Middle Ages is considered one of the main architectural monuments of the country and is included in the UNESCO World Heritage List. Also preserved (or restored) are Mostar University, the Kriva-Kupria bridge ("Crooked Bridge"), the towers of Halebia and Tara that supported the Stari Bridge, mosques and a monument in honor of those who fell during the years of the struggle against fascism.

In the town Blagay, 10 km south of Mostar there is a massive fortress of the same name.

Tiny Medugorje village, lying 17 km southwest of Mostar, on June 24, 1981 literally in one hour became world famous. On this day, six teenagers from this then wretched village, lying almost on the top of the mountain between Chitluk and Lyubushki, saw the appearance of the Virgin Mary, and instantly Medugorje was seized by an economic boom. You can visit the church of St. James and the rocky hill of Podbrdo, 5 kilometers away, where the event that made the village famous took place.

Banja Luka- once a modest city on the banks of the river Vrbas ("vrba" - willow), in the northwestern part of the country, is now known to the world as the capital of the Serbian Republic. Banja Luka ("St. Luke's bath", the first mention of it dates back to the end of the 15th century) was never known as a tourist center, it was a large industrial city that did not attract many visitors to the country, and besides, it lost part of its historical heritage in 1993 year, when Serbian militias blew up all 16 mosques in the city. Therefore, now only the fortress (XVI century) on the banks of the Vrbas, the recreated Cathedral of Christ the Savior, the Presidential Palace and the famous warm sulphurous springs near the city, which are considered one of the most famous balneo-climatic resorts in Europe, deserve attention here.

Also noteworthy is the most southeastern city of the country - Trebin, on the outskirts of which rises the national shrine of the Serbs - the Hercegovachka-Gracanitsa church, the Kravice waterfall on the Trebijat river in Herzegovina, the Zhitomislich monastery in the Neretva river valley, as well as the old residence of the Turkish governor in the city of Travnik (between Jaice and Sarajevo).

This flag of Bosnia and Herzegovina was one of three presented to the parliament appointed by the UN High Representative. All flags used the same colors: blue - the color of the United Nations, but it was replaced with a darker one. The stars symbolize Europe. The triangle symbolizes the country's three main population groups (Bosniaks, Croats and Serbs) and the outline of the country on the map. After the declaration of independence in 1992, the approved flag of the Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina was a white panel with the coat of arms of the Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina placed in the center - a blue shield with six golden lilies and a diagonal white stripe. During the Bosnian War, this flag was used by Bosnian Muslims and the RBiH government in controlled territories. Currently, the flag of the RBiH (popularly the "flag with lilies") is used by Muslim national organizations, football fans of Bosnian nationality, as well as among Bosnian nationalists.
Coat of arms of Bosnia and Herzegovina- the state symbol of Bosnia and Herzegovina, is a blue shield with a yellow triangle. The triangle symbolizes the country's three main population groups (Bosniaks, Croats and Serbs) and the outline of the country on the map. The white stars symbolize Europe.

NATURE

Bosnia and Herzegovina is a mountainous country. Most of it is located within the Dinaric Highlands - a complex system of mountain ranges, ridges, intermountain basins and valleys. In the far north, a wide low-lying strip stretches along the Sava River. To the south, it is replaced by medium-altitude mountains, composed of shales and sandstones. Further south are high mountains composed of limestone. Karst (bare limestone rocks, fields, karrs, caves) is widespread here. The highest mountain Maglic (2386 m) is located in the southeast, on the border with Yugoslavia. Parallel mountain ranges run from northwest to southeast. Most of the rivers belong to the Danube basin and flow in a northerly direction (Una, Sana, Vrbas, Bosna, Drina are tributaries of the Sava river bordering Croatia). Only a few rivers flow into the Adriatic Sea, and the largest of them is the Neretva. The valleys of the tributaries of the Sava widen in a northerly direction and smoothly turn into a fertile plain, which occupies the northern third of the country.

The territory of BiH is located at the southern border of the temperate climate zone. This area is characterized by average annual temperatures of 9-11°C, warm summers (average July temperature 19-21°C in the plains and 12-18°C in the mountains), moderately cool winters (average January temperature from 0 to -2°C on plains, from -4 to -7 ° C in the mountains) and abundant and uniform precipitation throughout the year (800-1000 mm on the plains and 1500-1800 mm in the mountains). The extreme southwest (Herzegovina) is characterized by a subtropical Mediterranean climate with hot dry summers (average July temperature 25 ° C) and warm wet winters (average January temperature + 5 ° C). The characteristic features of the local climate also include a rapid change in local weather during the day, which is associated with different heating of the mountain slopes under the influence of sunlight, changing its azimuth and angle of incidence during the day. The average temperature in summer in the valleys is from +16 to +27 C, and up to +10-21 in mountainous areas (in the capital, the average temperature in July is +21 C). In winter, from 0 C to -7 C, respectively (in the capital in January, about -1 C, but the temperature can drop to -16 C). Precipitation falls from 400 (eastern slopes of the mountains) to 1500 (western) mm per year, mainly in summer and early winter.

Fertile alluvial soils are common in the Sava valley and its tributaries, and brown forest soils are found in the mountains.

Forests occupy 41% of the territory of BiH. Indigenous broad-leaved forests are almost not preserved on the northern plains, which are currently occupied by agricultural land. In the north, in the foothills and on the slopes of the mountains up to a height of approx. 500 m grow oak and hornbeam forests with an admixture of maple and linden. In the central regions, beech trees are common, and above 800-900 m above sea level. - beech-fir forests with an admixture of maple, pine and spruce. In the upper mountain belt, above 1600-1700 m above sea level, subalpine meadows are common. In the subtropics in the south-west of BiH, evergreen forests (maquis) and deciduous shrubs are common up to a height of 300-400 m, higher in the mountains - forests of southern species of oak, hornbeam and maple.

In the mountains of BiH there are chamois, red deer, roe deer, brown bears, wolves, wild boars, lynxes, forest cats, otters, martens, and many hares. Lizards, snakes, turtles are common in karst areas. The avifauna is rich. From large birds there are eagles, falcons, capercaillie. The mouth of the Neretva River is characterized by swampy landscapes. There are great and little egrets, various waterfowl, and birds of prey - golden eagle, greater spotted eagle, white-tailed eagle.

In the highlands of southern Bosnia is the large Sutjeska National Park.

Many minerals are concentrated in the bowels of Bosnia and Herzegovina: large deposits of brown coal, iron and manganese ore, bauxite, rock salt, building stone and small deposits of copper, barite, lead, silver. Mountain rivers have significant hydropower potential.

Geographic data

Almost the entire territory of Bosnia and Herzegovina, with the exception of the north, lies within the Dinaric Highlands, the strongly dissected ranges of which run parallel to each other from the northwest to the southeast. Between the ridges, vast intermountain basins are stretched, in which the country's settlements are located. The height of the ridges decreases from the center to the border with Croatia in the north and south.

The highest peak is Mount Maglich (2386 m). In the mountains, composed of limestone strata, karst landforms are common (karst caves, underground rivers, karrs), and in intermountain basins - extensive karst fields (the largest Livansko-Pole is 405 km²). In the south of the Dinaric Highlands, near the city of Neum, Bosnia and Herzegovina has a small outlet to the Adriatic Sea (but the coastal waters belong to Croatia). In the north, in the valley of the Sava River, the southern part of the Middle Danube Lowland is located.

The territory of the country was formed during the Alpine folding and is located within the Alpine-Himalayan mobile belt, which explains the high seismicity of the Dinaric highlands. On October 27, 1969, a catastrophic earthquake completely destroyed the city of Banja Luka. The bowels of Bosnia and Herzegovina are rich in bauxite, lignite, brown coal, iron, manganese, mercury ores, and rock salt. Most of Bosnia and Herzegovina has a temperate continental climate with warm summers and moderately cool winters.

The rivers Una, Vrbas, Bosna (river), Drina flow to the north, flowing into the Sava, which belongs to the Danube basin. The Neretva River flows into the Adriatic Sea. About 30 HPPs (Bushko Blato, Yablanitsa) have been built on mountain rivers with great hydropower potential. Forests occupy about half of the country's territory (mainly in the mountains). Agricultural land has displaced forests from the plains. In the lower belt of mountains on the northern slopes, broad-leaved forests grow, changing above 900 m to spruce-fir forests, and above 1700 m to pine crooked forests and subalpine meadows. The southwestern slopes are occupied by evergreen Mediterranean vegetation.

Geological structure

Most of the territory of Bosnia and Herzegovina belongs to the Dinaric fold system (Dinarids).

In the south of the country, there is the outer Dinarid zone, which is composed of carbonate rocks of the Mesozoic, Cretaceous and Paleogene flysch, and is complicated by a system of folds and overthrusts. The middle Dinarid zone, located to the north, is characterized by a wide distribution of limestones forming large blocky folds. The inner Dinarid zone, which stretches through Bosnia and Herzegovina towards Serbia, is a complex folded system formed from geosynclinal troughs that existed until the Paleogene.

In the north of the country, in the region of the Middle Danube Plain, the territory is represented by limestones, sandstones and clays of the Neogene, which in the Pleistocene were covered by other deposits of a loess, alluvial and eolian character.

POPULATION

There is no complete information about the size and structure of the population. According to unofficial data, four and a half million people currently live in BiH. The country ranks 120th in the world in terms of population. Before the outbreak of hostilities (according to the 1991 census), 4.36 million people lived in the country: Bosnians - 43.6%, Serbs - 31.4%, Croats - 17.3%. The official languages ​​are Bosnian, Serbian, Croatian. The predominant religions are Islam, Orthodoxy, Catholicism.

The average life expectancy in the country is one of the highest in Europe. The country ranks 45th in the world in terms of life expectancy. Men, on average, live 78 years, and women 84 years. The share of the urban population is 49%. Natural increase - +1.80

Religious composition

There are three main national-religious communities in the country: Bosnian Muslims (43.7% of believers as of 1991, mostly Sunnis); predominantly Orthodox Serbs (31.4%) and Catholic Croats (17.3%). Protestants stand out among the small groups (4%).

GOVERNMENT

The most complex system of government in BiH in Europe and the diversity of political parties at the national and republican levels are determined by the historical development of the country in the 1990s. Under the 1946 Yugoslav constitution, Bosnia and Herzegovina was one of the country's six republics. According to the current constitution, contained in Annex 4 of the Dayton Peace Agreement, reached in the USA on November 21, 1995 and signed in Paris on December 14, 1995 (Paris Peace Treaty for BiH), the democratic state of Bosnia and Herzegovina consists of two entities - the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina (Muslim-Croatian) and Republika Srpska (RS). Each of these entities has its own president, parliament and government. The authorities at the federal level include the Presidium, the Parliamentary Assembly and the Council of Ministers.

The highest federal legislative body is the Parliamentary Assembly, or Assembly of BiH. It consists of two chambers: the House of Peoples (15 deputies: 5 Muslims and 5 Croats from the Federation of BiH, 5 Serbs from the Republika Srpska, elected by the parliaments of the two entities) and the House of Representatives (42 deputies directly elected: 14 Muslims and 14 Croats from Federation of BiH, 14 Serbs from Republika Srpska). The term of parliament is limited to two years. All citizens who have reached the age of 18 have the right to vote, and those who work - 16 years.

The highest body of executive power is the BiH collegial Presidium. The Presidium consists of three popularly elected presidents: a Bosnian and a Croat from the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina and a Serb from the Republika Srpska. Rotation of chairmen of the Presidium of BiH with a term of office of 4 years takes place every 8 months. The competence of the Presidium includes foreign policy issues, appointment of ambassadors and other international representatives of BiH, co-chairs of the Council of Ministers, submission of budget proposals to the Parliament, etc. The Chairman of the Council of Ministers is appointed by the Presidium and approved, like the entire government, by the House of Representatives. In February 2001, a coalition government was formed from representatives of the Social Democratic Party of BiH, the Party of Democratic Progress, the New Croatian Initiative, the For Bosnia and Herzegovina Party, and the Serbian People's Union. The minister and his two deputies must be of different nationalities. Government meetings are held alternately in Sarajevo, then in its suburbs, located on the territory of the Republika Srpska.

Along with the national (federal) authorities of BiH, there are own power structures (parliament, president and government) in the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina and the Republika Srpska.

Legislative power in the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina belongs to the federal parliament, which consists of two chambers, which are elected by popular vote for 2 years (in the future - for 4 years). The House of Representatives includes 140 deputies, the House of Nations - 74 deputies (Bosnians - 30, Croats - 30, representatives of other nationalities - 14).

The highest executive bodies of the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina include the institution of the presidency and the cabinet of ministers. Two candidates are elected for the presidency - from the Bosnians and from the Croats. One of them becomes vice president. There is an annual rotation of the president and vice president. The House of Peoples elects one Croat and one Bosniak as Prime Minister and Deputy Prime Minister of the Federation, who alternately act as Prime Minister for 4 years.

Legislative power in the Republika Srpska is exercised by the National Assembly, whose 83 deputies are elected by popular vote. The term of office of the National Assembly should be 4 years, but it is temporarily elected for 2 years.

Judicial system

The Constitutional Court consists of 9 members: 4 of them are elected by the House of Representatives of the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina, 2 by the National Assembly of the Republika Srpska, and 3 non-Bosnian members are appointed by the President of the European Court of Human Rights after consultation with the BiH Presidium. The Constitutional Court considers appeals to establish the constitutionality of laws adopted at the state level, and appeals sent from the main territorial entities. Each of these entities has a Supreme Court and lower courts (in the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina - 10 cantonal courts and municipal courts; in the Republika Srpska - 5 municipal courts).

The supreme judicial bodies in present-day BiH are under the control of the OSCE, which seeks to coordinate the work of the lower courts within the individual parts of the Federation.

Political parties and coalitions in Bosnia and Herzegovina

The Coalition for a United and Democratic BiH (FED) was formed on the basis of the Democratic Action Party. It also included representatives of the Liberal Party, the Civic Democratic Party and the Party for BiH. Has 17 seats in the House of Representatives (14 elected in the FBiH and 3 in the RS), as well as 68 deputies in the House of Representatives of the FBiH and 15 in the National Assembly of the RS.

The Union for Peace and Progress (SMP) is an election coalition formed in 1996 by the Independent Social Democratic Party (NSDP), the Socialist Party and the Social Liberal Party.

Sloga (Union) coalition - consists of the Socialist Party, the Serbian People's Union and the NSDP. Has 4 seats in the Federal House of Representatives and 28 in the National Assembly of the RS.

The Democratic Action Party (SDA) is the largest Muslim party in the federation. Created in 1990 by A. Izetbegovic and H. Silajdzic. Transformed from a multi-ethnic and federalist party into an ethnic and Muslim party. He advocates the political and economic unity of the country under the dominant position of Muslims, as well as cultural autonomy for ethnic groups. Chairman - A. Izetbegovich.

Croatian Democratic Commonwealth of BiH (HDZ) - 6 deputies in the Federal House of Representatives; 28 seats in the Federal House of Representatives of the FBiH and 1 seat in the National Assembly of the RS. Bosnian branch of the "parent" CDU, founded by F. Tudjman. Its political platform includes a demand for ethnic autonomy, with options ranging from the legalization of a Muslim-Croatian federation to the formation of a confederal structure with Croatia. Supports the decentralization of the state of BiH at the political, economic and cultural levels. After the violent death of party leader Jojo Leutara, all CDU leaders decided to leave the federal, federal and local power structures. The representative in the BiH Presidium is Ante Jelavic. The chairman of the party is Bozho Rajic.

Serbian Democratic Party (SDP) - 4 deputies in the House of Representatives (all of them are elected in the RS) and 19 seats in the National Assembly of the RS. Adheres to nationalist orientations. One of its founders, R. Karadzic, after the entry into force of the Dayton Accords, was forced to withdraw from it. Leader - Dragan Kalinich.

Serbian Radical Party of the RS (SRP RS) - 2 seats in the Federal House of Representatives, 11 seats in the National Assembly of the RS. Founded by V. Sheshel, leader of a similar party in the FRY. Supports the international recognition of RS as an independent state. Leader - Nikola Poplashen.

The Serbian Unity Party (PSE) is an ultra-nationalist party. Leader - Zlatko Raznatovic.

Political parties in the Federation of BiH

Party for Bosnia and Herzegovina - founded in 1996 by the former prime minister under the rule of Izetbegovic and co-founder of the Democratic Action Party H. Silajdzic. Although the party is open to all ethnic minorities, it has a strong Muslim focus and holds strong positions in urban areas such as Tuzla and Sarajevo. Leader - Haris Silajdzic.

The Civic Democratic Party (CDP) is a centrist party, a member of the KCD coalition and is therefore represented in the federal parliament and the federal government.

Liberal Party (LP), leader - Rashim Kadic.

Croatian Peasants' Party (HKP) - 1 seat in the federal House of Representatives, but no deputy mandate in the federal parliament. Consistent supporter of the BiH state. The principles of the Bosnian HKP are close to social democratic, some of its leaders adhere to centrist positions. Leader - Ivo Komcic.

Democratic People's Union (DNS) - 1 seat in the federal House of Representatives and 3 seats in the federal parliament. CSN (previously known as the National Democratic Union) was founded in 1993. The leader is Fikret Abdich.

Republican Party (RP) - not represented in parliament, pursues a centrist line. Founded in 1994 in Sarajevo, the number of its members soon after its creation reached 12 thousand people. Leader - Stepan Klyuich.

The Bosnian Organization (BO) was founded in 1990 after leaving the SDA under the name of the Muslim-Bosnian Organization. At present, it is a multi-ethnic and multi-confessional liberal party, which opposes any ethnic domination, for the return of refugees to their places of former residence, for trans-ethnic and inter-ethnic cooperation. Leader - Adil Zulfikarpashich.

Liberal Bosnian Organization (LBO) - has no representation in Parliament. Founded in 1991. Leaders are Muhammed Filipović and Salih Foko. Bosnian Social Democratic Party (BSDP) - founded on February 27, 1999 as a result of the merger of two social democratic parties of the BiH Federation: the Social Democrats of BiH and the Social Democratic Party of BiH. The leader of the party is Z. Lagumdzhia.

Political parties in Republika Srpska

The Social Liberal Party (SLP) is a liberal-oriented party that does not have representation in parliament. Founded in 1992 in Banja Luka. Leaders - M. Zhivanovich and M. Tukic.

The Serbian Civil Committee (SCC) was established in 1994 to protect the rights of the Bosnian Serbs who lived in the territory of Duke-Bosna, and then in the FBiH. He advocates the recognition of the state-forming status of the Bosnian Serbs, similar to the status of the Muslim and Croat populations. Leader - Mirko Pejanovic.

Socialist Party of the RS (SP RS) - 2 seats in the federal parliament and 10 seats in the National Assembly of the RS. Leader - Zivko Radisic.

Serbian People's Union (SNS RS) - 12 seats in the National Assembly of the RS. It has evolved from a nationalist to a centrist party. Founder and leader - Bilyana Plavsic.

Independent Social Democratic Party (NSDP) - founded in February 1992 in Banja Luka. Western-oriented and focuses on cooperation with parties of other ethnic groups. Leader - Milorad Dodik.

Armed forces

Armed Forces of Bosnia and Herzegovina (AFBiH) Conscription into the armed forces was abolished in 2006. Male citizens of Bosnia and Herzegovina and over 18 years of age are eligible for voluntary military service. The service life is 4 months. Transfer to the reserve occurs after 15 years of service or upon reaching the age of 35.

At present, there are 1,180,000 people in the country fit for military service. Each of the entities of the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina and the Republika Srpska have their own armed forces and are completed respectively by Bosnians and Croats in the first case and Serbs in the second. Each of these armies has an air fleet and an air defense unit. In 2000 military expenditures in BiH amounted to 2000 approx. 8% of GDP, and the armed forces numbered 40 thousand people. The country's military leadership believes that it has every reason to join NATO. BiH is included in the NATO program "Partnership for Peace".

ECONOMY

Until 1990 BiH remained one of the least developed republics of the SFRY. Nevertheless, the mining industry was developed here, including the extraction of coal, iron ore, and rock salt. Before the outbreak of hostilities, there were enterprises of mechanical engineering (production of machine tools, bicycles, agricultural machines), ferrous and non-ferrous metallurgy, chemical, timber and light industries.

The civil war (April 1992 - November 1995) severely damaged the economy of Bosnia and Herzegovina. Approximately 80% of light industry enterprises, which dominated the country's economy, were damaged or destroyed, oil imports decreased due to the blockade of Croatian ports on the Adriatic Sea. Unemployment has reached its highest levels since World War II. During the war years, BiH's economy and social sphere were almost completely destroyed. The total material damage is estimated by various sources from 20 to 80 billion dollars. The level of industrial production dropped sharply and amounted to approx. 15% pre-war.

After 1995, large-scale international assistance was focused on the process of economic recovery, although the consequences of interethnic conflict still continue to have a negative impact on its development.

The restoration of the country's economy is carried out mainly within the framework of the international reconstruction program, which provided for the allocation of 5.1 billion dollars for these purposes in 1996-2000.

In 2000, GDP amounted to 6.5 billion dollars (in 1999 - 6.2 billion dollars); per capita - $ 1,770. The country's GDP in 1998 was equal to a quarter of the pre-war level, and industrial production - 10-15%. In 1996, the structure of GDP was dominated by the service sector - 58%, the share of industry was 23%, agriculture - 19%. Despite high GDP growth rates (in 1996 - 50%, in 1997 - 37%, in 1998 - 28%, in 2000 - 8%), its pre-war level has not yet been reached.

The mining, metallurgical, oil refining, textile industries, the production of components for automobiles and the aviation industry, household appliances, etc. are gradually being restored. By the beginning of 2000, with the help of the German Volkswagen and the Czech Skoda, the production of cars began; due to their low cost, they are in demand in neighboring countries. One of the main investors in the industry is Slovenia.

The inflation rate in 2000 was estimated at 8% (in 1997 - 5%). The economically active population is 1026 thousand people, the unemployment rate is 35-40%. The emerging growth of industrial production in 1999-2000 reached 10%. BiH produced 2.6 billion kWh of electricity in 1999. Hydroelectric power plants produce 61% of electricity, thermal power plants - 39%. Electricity production is estimated at 2585 million kWh, consumption - at 2684 kWh, export - 150 million kWh, import - 430 million kWh.

Agriculture is the main branch of the country's economy. The main crops are tobacco, sugar beet, corn and wheat. The border regions with Serbia are famous for the production of fruits, mainly plums, in the north - viticulture is developed. In the mountains, the population raises sheep, and on the plains, cattle. Forest resources are an important component of the country's economy.

Prior to the civil war, BiH had a 1,020 km long railway network (of which about 800 km were electrified). The length of motor roads reached 21,850 km (about 14,000 km with hard surface). The Sava River was navigable for a considerable length. All transport routes have been badly damaged as a result of hostilities and require restoration, and the Sava channel needs to be cleared. An oil pipeline with a length of 174 km and a gas pipeline with a length of 90 km run through the territory of BiH. There are 9 airports in the country with paved runways.

Foreign trade is reviving: in 2000, exports of goods and services were estimated at $950 million, imports at $2,460 million. The main export partners are Croatia, Switzerland, Italy, Germany, and Croatia, Slovenia, Germany, and Italy are import partners. Since 2001, trade relations with Russia have been established. In 1999, external debt amounted to $3.4 billion.

BiH has a steady budget deficit. In 1999, budget revenues amounted to $1.9 billion and expenditures to $2.2 billion.

Analysis of the macroeconomic situation in Bosnia and Herzegovina in the first half of 2011

Although exports from Bosnia and Herzegovina scored in the first half of 2011 compared to 2010 increased by more than 20 percent, imports increased almost in equal proportions as a result of a significant trade deficit. Although exports to CEFTA countries, mutual trade could negatively show the unilateral imposition of duties on parts of Kosovo. The inflow of foreign direct investment increased, but reached only 122,700,000 and deep in the pre-crisis years.

According to the published results of foreign exchange trade of Bosnia and Herzegovina with the world from January to June 2011, turnover totaling 12.04 billion km (6.16 billion), including exports of 4.74 billion km (2420000000. EUR), which is 20.5% more than the same period in 2010, while imports 7,300,000 km (3.7 billion), an increase of 18.2% more. The trade balance deficit reached 3.3 billion km (1.68 billion). Coverage of imports by exports reached the level of 55.2%. The degree of coverage of imports by exports has been gradually decreasing since the beginning of 2011.

The main trading partners of Bosnia and Herzegovina to Germany are exports and imports to Croatia. Among the top 10 importing countries are the USA, Russia and China. The US imports most cars, Russia oil and gas, and China in particular consumer goods of all kinds. Although the mutual foreign trade turnover of Bosnia and Herzegovina with the CEFTA countries in 2011 compared to 2010 increased over the first six months by more than 20%, these values ​​may be affected in the second half of the unilateral actions of the Kosovo government (the introduction of a 10% duty on imported products from Bosnia and Herzegovina), which is due to the non-recognition of Kosovo and Kosovo customs documents, Bosnia and Herzegovina. In Kosovo, the majority of imported products are steel, mineral fuels and oils, timber and its products (26 million euros in 2010). It imports most of the raw materials of leather, rubber, vinegar and various alcoholic beverages (1 million in 2010).

According to Czech statistics, the foreign trade turnover achieved between the Republic and Bosnia and Herzegovina is 71,900,000 (compared to 2010 index 102%), exports 57,300,000 (index 101.6%), imports 14,700,000 (index 104.2%). The balance of 42700000 is at the level of 2010.

Industrial production in June 2011 compared with the average of 2010 increased by 7% compared with the same month in 2010 even by 10.4% compared with May 2010 by 2.4%. The manufacturing industry increased in June compared to the average of 2010 by 11% compared to June 2010 7.3%.

The unemployment rate at the end of May 2011 reached 43.1%. A total of 526,791 unemployed people were registered, which is 0.4% more than at the end of 2010. Compared to April 2010, the unemployment rate increased by 0.2%. For legal entities, a total of 694,191 people were employed in May 2011, of which 282,666 were women. The economically active population is currently 1120 thousand people, which is significantly less than in 2008, when there were 1620 thousand people. Economically inactive population total 1,430,000

Annual inflation reached in June 2011 at the level of 3.8% and amounted to 0.5% per month. Bosnia and Herzegovina within the Western Balkan countries with very low inflation, especially in comparison with Serbia, where inflation has recently jumped to 12.7%.

Relatively good record of the tourism sector. Only in June 2011 visited Bosnia and Herzegovina, almost 75 thousand tourists, which is 41.8% more than in May 2011 and 1.5% more than in May 2010. The main share of tourists from the countries of the former Yugoslavia, Slovenia, Croatia, Serbia, but also increases the number of tourists from Western Europe, Turkey and abroad, especially from the Far East (Japan, South Korea), the number of tourists from China has recently increased.

The bank's total deposits were 14,780 million at the end of the half-KM (7.55 billion), up 0.41% since the end of 2011. Savings of the population increased by 3.9% and 6790 thousand km (3.47 billion). The limit for deposit insurance in Bosnia and Herzegovina is 35,000 km (17,895 EUR). This limit is 98.7% covered by depositors and 68% of all deposits. Interest on short-term corporate loans is currently 7.5% and 10.2% on consumer loans. In addition, rates on deposit accounts in KM for the corporate sector decreased by 3.5% and 2.9% for consumer deposits for the population.

Gross GDP for 2010 at current prices amounts to 14.4 billion km (7.36 billion). GDP per capita is 6371 km (3 257 EUR) and represents 30% of the EU average, which means that Bosnia and Herzegovina is one of the last places in Europe in this comparison.

Recently, media articles are increasingly appearing from local economists and analysts who point to the fact that the rate of the Bosnian KM marks at a fixed level of 1.95583 per euro is overvalued and there are no more realistic ones (talking about the real exchange rate to 1: four). As a result of the lack of competitiveness of goods from Bosnia and Herzegovina, an increase in the trade deficit and a decrease in the level of coverage of imports by exports, a small increase in industrial production and high unemployment. Another problem is high government spending focused solely on consumption and a small influx of foreign direct investment. As a result of slow economic growth. Rumors of a possible course of treatment are flatly dismissed by the governor of the National Bank, who considers the fixed exchange rate of convertible marks to the euro as one of several fixed BA economy anchors. Some politicians have also begun demanding a second rate of VAT on "social goods", despite warnings from the International Monetary Fund (IMF) that such an adjustment would not produce the expected results (lower prices) but would only complicate the administration of tax collection.

The poor economic situation adds to the inability of local politicians to agree after almost 10 months to build a national government, the adoption of adequate and much needed economic reforms and restrictions on public spending and claims that are literally stifling economic growth. Because the exploded view of the central government and the global recognition of the financial framework 2011-2013 have BA, the consent of the European Commission has committed to allocate macroeconomic assistance in the amount of 100 million euros in loans at very favorable interest rates. The risk is also pumping 96 million euros for projects financed from the IPA in 2011. Due to the refusal to approve the 2011 budget and budgetary framework, the IMF, World Bank and EBRD will block their funds for the next two years. All this causes serious concern of foreign investors in terms of continued development in the future.

Reflected by political and economic instability, there is cautious and very little FDI inflow into the country, which is one of the lowest in the region. First of all, these reasons were the reason for the recent decision of Standard & Poor's outlook to change the economy of Bosnia and Herzegovina from stable to negative. Nothing in this fact changes the fact that, according to the Central Bank, the financial situation in the country is improving slightly. To achieve the expected GDP growth of 2.8% in 2011, it is necessary to be prepared as soon as the central government has implemented significant economic reforms. Given that time is running out and that the result of political wrangling is likely to be a rather broad coalition government with a weak mandate, the country is in for a rather difficult economic time. (Source: Embassy of the Russian Republic)

Industry

By the 1960s, Bosnia and Herzegovina accounted for 99% of iron ore production and 100% of coke production, 40% of coal production, 2/3 of pig iron production and 50% of steel smelting throughout Yugoslavia. Bosnia and Herzegovina ranked first in Yugoslavia in timber industry and played a significant role in the chemical industry (in the years of the SFRY, only Bosnia and Herzegovina had the production of soda (Lukavats) and chlorine).

Heavy industry was located mainly in the east of Bosnia, between the rivers Sava, Drina and Bosna. In the south of this region, north and northwest of Sarajevo, large lignite mines produced most of Yugoslavia's coal. Brown coal and lignite were mined in the areas of Tuzla, Zenitsa, Kakani, Breza, Banovichi and others.

The iron mines of Varesh and Lyubiya and a manganese mine, thermal power plants were also located here. In Bosnia and Herzegovina, the main center of ferrous metallurgy in Yugoslavia was located - the city of Zenica, where there is a plant with a full cycle of metallurgical production. There were two more metallurgical plants in Bosnia and Herzegovina: an old plant in the city of Vares and a new plant in the city of Ilyas. Bauxites were mined, mainly for export.

By the end of the 1950s, in Herzegovina on the Neretva River, near the city of Yablanitsa, the most powerful hydroelectric power station in Yugoslavia at that time was put into operation. In Bosnia and Herzegovina, 2/5 of all hydropower resources of the SFRY were concentrated.

In the south of Bosnia and Herzegovina, where there is cheap energy produced by hydroelectric power plants on the Neretva and Vrbas rivers, electrochemical enterprises (Jajce) and an aluminum plant were established. Coke production was carried out at plants in Zenica and Lukavac. A plant for the production of nitrogen fertilizers was located in Gorazde.

The products of the timber industry complex of Bosnia and Herzegovina were both for domestic consumption in the SFRY and for export. Large sawmills were located mainly in the western and central parts of the country: Zavidovichi (assembly house factory), Banja Luka, Sarajevo, Drvar. Of general Yugoslav importance was the production of tobacco in Bosnia and Herzegovina, which took place in four relatively large factories - in Sarajevo, Banja Luka, Travnik and Mostar.

Bosnia and Herzegovina ranked first in the SFRY in the production of pulp, pulp mills were located in Prijedor, Banja Luka, Maglaj and Drvar.

The country had mechanical engineering, food and light industry. The most important industrial hubs of Bosnia and Herzegovina were Sarajevo-Zenica, where coal was mined, ferrous metallurgy and mechanical engineering developed; Tuzla-Banovichi, specializing in coal and salt mining, chemical industry and mechanical engineering.

SOCIETY

Social Security

In 1996, there were 4,500 doctors and 12,000 nurses in Bosnia and Herzegovina. By 2000, with the assistance of international organizations, many destroyed hospitals were restored and new ones were built. Throughout the 1990s, the international community provided humanitarian assistance to the country.

Religion

Up to the X century. the population of most of Bosnia was not converted to Christianity, although in Herzegovina this happened quite early. The territory of Bosnia and Herzegovina belonged to the jurisdiction of the Western (Roman) Church. The medieval Bosnian state (12th-15th centuries) was the center of Bogomilism. The last Bosnian kings were Catholics and contributed to the strengthening of the influence of the Franciscan order. The easternmost regions of the medieval state, especially the eastern part of Herzegovina, remained mostly Orthodox. The conquest of Bosnia by the Turks in the XV-XVI centuries. accompanied by mass conversion of the population to Islam. Many Bosnian nobles (Serbs or Croats) were forced to take this step in order to preserve property, privileges and a dominant position. The results of the Turkish occupation were as follows: thousands of Bosnians of both sexes were sold into slavery or taken into Janissaries. The Turks announced that those who converted to Islam received tax exemptions and other privileges: the Slavic nobility who converted to Islam was equated with the Turkish nobility. However, the majority of Bosnian Serbs and Croats remained Christian.

At the turn of 1520-30, according to the Turkish historian Omer Lutfi Barkan, in the Bosnian Sandjak, the population was 38.7% Muslim. In Herzegovina, conquered by the Turks only in 1482, Islamization was less active. In 1624, the Albanian priest Peter Masarechi wrote that 150,000 Catholics, 75,000 Orthodox and 450,000 Muslims live in Bosnia. After the Austrians conquered Hungary and Croatia from the Turks, Muslims from these territories in 1690 moved to Bosnia. In 1875, an uprising of Christian peasants against Turkish rule began in Herzegovina, which spread to some regions of Bosnia, and in 1878 Bosnia was annexed to Austria-Hungary. According to the Austrian census of 1879, the population was 42.88% Orthodox, 38.75% Muslim, and 18.08% Catholic.

In 1910, for 1,898,044 inhabitants, there were 43.49% Orthodox, 32.25% Muslims and 22.87% Catholics. In the cities of Bosnia and Herzegovina, Muslims predominated, followed by Catholics and only then Orthodox. The upward trend in the proportion of Orthodox and Catholics, while the proportion of Muslims fell, continued after the collapse of Austria-Hungary and the incorporation of Bosnia into Yugoslavia.

The collapse of Yugoslavia led to an aggravation of the confrontation between the three nations speaking the same language and having a common origin, but professing a different religion. In October 1991, the Croatian and Muslim deputies of the Bosnian parliament adopted a memorandum on the sovereignty of the republic. In November 1991, the Bosnian Serbs voted in a referendum for the creation of a renewed Yugoslav state together with Serbia. On January 9, 1992, the Republic of Serbian Bosnia and Herzegovina was proclaimed, and on July 3, 1992, the Croatian state of Herceg-Bosnia was proclaimed. About 100 thousand people died in the interethnic and interreligious war, 1.4 million became refugees (the majority have now returned), a large number of mosques, Orthodox and Catholic churches were destroyed and damaged. The proportion of Muslims in the population of Sarajevo has increased from 50% to 90%.

At the end of 1995, NATO peacekeepers were stationed in the country, the Muslim-Croat Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina (51% of the territory) and the Republika Srpska (49%) were created.

The number of Catholics during the war fell more than the number of Muslims or Orthodox Christians: many Croat refugees remained in Croatia.

At present, adherence to one or another confession is determined mainly by nationality: Serbs - profess Orthodoxy (31%), Croats - Catholicism (15%). Serbs and Croats who profess Islam call themselves Bosniaks or Muslims (40%).

CULTURE

Education system

In 1990-1991, 720 thousand people studied in the country's schools. In the first half of the 1990s, educational institutions were badly damaged as a result of hostilities. With the return to peaceful life, the government first of all took up the restoration of the public education system. It includes preschools, basic compulsory schools, general secondary schools, special secondary schools, technical secondary schools, and universities. Kindergartens are attended by children aged 3 to 7 years. In BiH compulsory 8-year education. Basic compulsory schools have two levels: for children aged 7 to 11 and for children aged 11 to 15. Upon completion of the basic school, adolescents aged 15 to 19 can continue their education in a 4-year general secondary school (gymnasium) or in 4-year special secondary schools, which are divided into pedagogical, artistic, musical, religious and technical. A profession can also be acquired at a three-year vocational school.

Graduates of secondary school for higher education, according to the results of entrance examinations, can enter one of the four universities (Sarajevo, Banja Luka, Mostar or Tuzla), one of the academies (including pedagogical ones in Zenica and Bihac) or open at the beginning 2000s Special Pedagogical College in Bijeljina. Upon graduation, the graduate receives a diploma of higher education of the 1st degree (2-3 years of study), 2nd degree of professional education in the field of various sciences and arts (4-5 years of study), 3rd degree ( master's degree with the preparation of a research project), 4th degree (doctors with the defense of a dissertation). Kindergarten teachers are trained by two-year pedagogical academies. In addition, these academies train teachers for basic and secondary schools. Universities graduate teachers of special secondary schools.

Sarajevo University was founded in 1949. Prior to the military events of 1992-1995, more than 30,000 students annually studied at its 25 faculties. As a result of the bombing, 5 faculties and a library with 1.8 million books were completely destroyed, 9 faculties were largely destroyed. Other universities were opened in the 1970s. The heavily damaged Mostar University, which included the Western (Croatian) branch and the Eastern branch, was evacuated to Neum and Jablanitsa, respectively.

The Academy of Sciences was established in Bosnia and Herzegovina in 1966. There are several research institutes in BiH, including the Eastern Institute and the Balkan Institute.

Literature

Early books in Bosnia and Herzegovina were written in the Glagolitic and Cyrillic alphabets and are works of religious content. In addition to church literature, many records and fragments of individual documents have been preserved. After the Ottoman conquest, literary activity continued within the religious communities. Bosnian Muslims created in Arabic, Turkish, Persian and Croatian. The Talmudic works of the Sephardic Jews of Sarajevo and Travnik are known.

National revival of Croats and Serbs in the 19th century. contributed to the activities of many writers of Bosnia. Franciscan monk Ivan Frano Jukic, editor of the first literary magazine in Bosnia and Herzegovina, Bosani Friend, gained fame among Croats. Among the writers, a representative of early Serbian romanticism, a native of Sarajevo, Sima Milutinovic (Sarailia, 1791-1847), who spent most of his life in Serbia, stands out.

At the end of the 19th century the National Museum in Sarajevo, libraries were opened, scientific societies were created. At the same time, the number of literate people in Bosnia barely exceeded a tenth of the total population. The Austro-Hungarian government decided to change the situation and after 1908 introduced compulsory universal education.

Notable writers of the 20th century who came from Bosnia were Travnik native Ivo Andric (1892-1975), Nobel Prize winner in 1961, and Mehmed Meša Selimović (born in 1910 in Tuzla).

The long years of Ottoman rule have left their mark on the culture of Bosnia and Herzegovina. Islamic motifs are clearly expressed in the architecture of inns, bridges and other structures. Islamic manuscripts, decorated with colored drawings, have survived. Islamic melodies can be traced in Bosnian folk music, primarily in lyric songs.

Mass media

The largest editions of BiH are the daily morning newspaper "Oslobodzhene" ("Liberation", 56,000 copies) and the daily evening newspaper "Vecherne Novine" (15,000). The State Radio and Television of Bosnia and Herzegovina broadcasts on four radio channels and two television channels.

Cuisine of Bosnia and Herzegovina

Bosnian cuisine was formed as a result of mixing South Slavic, German, Turkish and Mediterranean culinary traditions. The basis of local dishes is meat and vegetables, and if Turkish influence is clearly visible in meat products, then in terms of vegetables and herbs, the Bosnians will not yield to their neighbors in the Mediterranean region. And from the Slavic peoples inherited an abundance of dairy products, primarily cheese, and the widespread use of bread and cereals.

National holidays

Official holidays and weekends in Bosnia and Herzegovina
January 1-2 - New Year.
January 6-7 - Orthodox Christmas.
January 9 - Republic Day in the Serbian part of the country.
January 14-15 - Old New Year.
January 27 - St. Sava's Day.
February 2 - Eid al-Adha.
March 1 Independence Day.
April 5 - National holiday.
April 15 - Army Day.
April-May - Easter.
May 1 - Labor Day.
May 9 - Victory Day.
August 15 - Velika Gospa (Assumption of the Blessed Virgin).
November 1 - All Saints Day.
November 25 - Day of the Republic of the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina.
December 25 - Catholic Christmas.

In addition to the above dates, the government of Bosnia and Herzegovina allocates 2 days a year for religious ceremonies, regardless of religion. These days are not considered official holidays, but are non-working days.

Festivals and holidays in Bosnia and Herzegovina

The Winter Festival (February 21 - March 7) is a whole series of festive events accompanied by theatrical and musical performances. In March, the Festival of Bosnian Orchestras is held. In June-July, the Days of Sarajevo Culture are celebrated. July 12-16 is the Week of Language, accompanied by a variety of ethnic performances, as well as various scientific and practical conferences. On August 19-27, Sarajevo hosts the annual Sarajevo Film Festival, and in September the theater festival TheaterFest takes place. November 2-6 is the music festival Jazz-Fest in Sarajevo.

STORY

Early history. Central Bosnia was one of the areas in Europe where the art of ceramics appeared already in the Neolithic. Traces of the artistic and material culture of that time were found near Butmir (near Sarajevo), so the Neolithic culture of Bosnia is usually called Butmir.
In the III millennium BC. a number of tribes who owned iron tools and weapons invaded the area and destroyed the Butmir culture. Nevertheless, very little is known about the past of Bosnia before the appearance in it in the Hallstatt era (II and I millennium BC) of the Illyrian tribes. The Illyrians were the main inhabitants of the country until the 4th century. BC, when the Celts moved here from the north. In the 1st century BC. The present territory of Bosnia and Herzegovina was occupied by the Romans, who turned it into part of the large province of Illyricum.
The linguistic map of the Balkans in general and of Bosnia and Herzegovina in particular acquired its modern form in the 6th and 7th centuries, when Slavic tribes, mainly Croats and Serbs, captured the western parts of the Balkan Peninsula that belonged to the Eastern Roman (Byzantine) Empire, leaving it with fortified Adriatic cities, and then Slavicized the Illyrian population.
Middle Ages.
Bosnia was the last of the regions of the South Slavs to create their own state and the last to be converted to Christianity. The geographical position of Bosnia isolated its central part from the influence of the cultures of neighboring countries - Byzantium from the south, the culture of Germany and the Holy Roman Empire from the north, Italy from the west.
The original Bosnia, the region of the upper reaches of the Bosna River, was in vassalage from Raska (Serbia), but after 960 AD. became a self-governing territory. In 1018 Byzantium established nominal power over Bosnia. At the beginning of the 12th c. Hungary occupied part of Bosnia, including the Rama river valley. The Hungarian king received the title "Ramae rex" (King of Rama, i.e. Bosnia) and appointed bans (deputies of the king) to govern the province. After a period of Byzantine control, ban Kulin of Bosnia (reigned 1180-1204) again recognized the rule of Hungary. Nevertheless, he behaved like an independent ruler, granting trading privileges to merchants from Dubrovnik, encouraging the resettlement of artisans, miners and craftsmen from the coastal cities of Croatia and the mining of silver and iron ore.
In 1203, the papal legate obliged Kulin and the elders of the monastic communities, called simply Krstians (Christians), to renounce heresy and recognize the supremacy of the Roman Catholic Church. This meant that the Bogomil heresy already existed in Bosnia. After Kulin's death, Hungary undertook a series of crusades against the "Bosnian heretics" and in 1250 forced the bans to submit to her again.
For one century, the bani were associated with Hungary and the Catholic Church. The economic boom strengthened the political ambitions of the Bosnian bans and aristocrats. Tvrtko I Kotromanich (ruled 1353-1391) began his reign as a ban and vassal of Hungary, but in 1377 he crowned himself king.
In the 13th-14th centuries. the bans and kings of Bosnia expanded the territory, which became the last large medieval kingdom of the southern Slavs. Their expansion led to an increase in the population of the country, mainly due to the Croats, and after the acquisition of Herzegovina (Hum or Hum land), the country received access to the Adriatic.
After the death of Tvrtko, the state fell into decay. Hungary again captured the central and northern parts of Dalmatia, which Tvrtko acquired in 1390. In addition, in the 15th century. Bosnian kings lost power over the feudal lords. Hum, in particular, was ruled by representatives of local dynasties, such as Sandal Hranic and his nephew Stepan Vukcic. The latter in 1449 chose the title "Duke" (Duke), and after that the medieval Hum began to be called Herzegovina.
Ottoman rule.
In 1463, most of the fragmented Bosnia fell under the rule of the Turks; Herzegovina resisted a little longer, but in 1482 both provinces were united by the Turks under a single administration. The last Bosnian territories (the Jajce region) passed to the Turks in 1528, after the victory of the Ottomans over the Hungarians in the Battle of Mohacs (1526). All of Bosnia and Herzegovina remained under the rule of the Ottomans until 1718, when part of its territory went to the Habsburgs for two decades.
After the conquest by the Turks, the Bosnian Bogomils were converted to Islam en masse. Some joined the church Christians, in particular the Catholics. This massive conversion, unique in its scope, gave Bosnia a special status within the Ottoman Empire. The territory of Bosnia was retained and expanded with a number of Croatian territories. The Muslim elite of Bosnia received the status of hereditary nobility.
Bosnia's religious landscape has become more complex since migrants called Vlachs, who identified themselves as Orthodox Christians, entered the service of the Ottoman Empire's border guards in northwestern Bosnia. Over time, they began to identify themselves with the Serbs. In addition, during the Ottoman rule, a significant proportion of the Catholic population of Herzegovina converted to Orthodoxy.
After several centuries of struggle with landowners-feudal lords, the government in 1839 declared the equality of all subjects of the Ottoman Empire before the law and abolished the feudal military system.
In 1848, the governor of Bosnia abolished the so-called. corve - free labor of serfs for their landowner. Less wealthy landowners (yep) did not want to lose the corve, but their rebellion was crushed (1849-1851). The feudal landowners completely reconciled with the government when it issued a decree (1859) declaring the feudal lords the full owners of the land and turning the peasants into sharecroppers. The law of 1859 gave the peasants freedom; voluntarily or under pressure, many of them renounced their rights to lease land. In 1875 there were several hundred beys or large landowners, more than 6,000 aga, 77,000 peasant families (mostly Muslim) and 85,000 families of sharecroppers, mostly Orthodox (Serbs) and Catholics (Croats).
Some landowners strove to receive both Corve labor and higher rents, which were granted to them under the law of 1848. In addition, a poor harvest in Herzegovina in 1875 led to famine. But the uprising that broke out in 1875 was both political and economic. Ideologically, it broke up into several currents that spoke out for unification with Serbia, for unification with Croatia or for autonomy. The Berlin Congress (1878) transferred Bosnia and Herzegovina under the rule of Austria-Hungary.
Austro-Hungarian rule.
During the Austro-Hungarian rule of Veniamin von Kalai (1883-1903), the economy of Bosnia and Herzegovina developed intensively. Railways were built, banks were founded, woodworking factories and tobacco factories were opened. However, dissatisfaction with the policy of Kalai, who established a semi-colonial regime based on bureaucratic cadres who arrived from Austria-Hungary, also grew. In addition, Bosnia and Herzegovina was increasingly at the center of rivalry between Croats and Serbs. The Austro-Hungarian administration hindered the province's ties with Croatia and encouraged regional national sentiments.
The struggle for Bosnia and Herzegovina reached its climax in 1903 with the accession to the throne in Serbia of Peter I Karageorgievich. In an environment of growing Serbian nationalism, Austria-Hungary annexed Bosnia and Herzegovina in 1908, bringing Europe to the brink of war.
Even before the annexation, control of the Serbian nationalist movement in Bosnia and Herzegovina began to gradually shift from conservatives to radicals. The younger generation of Serbian nationalists wanted to achieve unification with Serbia, using terror among other methods. The terrorists, who were assisted by Serbian military intelligence, after the failure of a number of assassination attempts on Austro-Hungarian officials, managed to kill Archduke Franz Ferdinand in June 1914. This political assassination in Sarajevo prompted Austria-Hungary to declare war on Serbia and unleashed the First World War.
Yugoslav period.
At the end of the First World War, Austria-Hungary collapsed, and Bosnia and Herzegovina became part of the new Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes (in 1929-1945 - the Kingdom of Yugoslavia). In the interwar period, the dominant Muslim party - the Yugoslav Muslim Organization (YUMO) - fought for the autonomy of Bosnia and Herzegovina, but King Alexander Karageorgievich after the announcement of the royal dictatorship in 1929 divided Bosnia and Herzegovina into several banovinas. In 1939, Yugoslav Prime Minister Dragisa Cvetkovic reached an agreement with Vladko Macek, the leader of the Croatian opposition, to create an autonomous banovina of Croatia. Subsequently, Croatian-majority parts of Bosnia and Herzegovina were incorporated into Croatia. This strategic mistake demoralized many Muslims and encouraged both Serbian and Croatian nationalists to consider the rest of Bosnia as a legitimate part of Serbia.
During World War II, Germany and its allies divided Yugoslavia into several regions, incorporating Bosnia and Herzegovina into the independent state of Croatia, an Axis satellite state led by the Ustashe fascist movement. This period was characterized by the persecution of Serbs by the Ustaše and the killing of Muslims by Serbian Chetniks.
Post-war Bosnia and Herzegovina had the status of a republic in the Yugoslav federation, created on the Soviet model by Marshal Josip Broz Tito. During the first post-war years until 1966, Serbs dominated the governing bodies of the republic, who continued to persecute Croatian and Muslim nationalists, as well as all religious communities. After 1966, Tito increasingly relied on the communist leaders of Bosnia and Herzegovina, who took a hard line to nullify the ambitions of both Serbia and Croatia. Tito simultaneously supported the Bosnian Muslims as an already established national group, creating an increasingly favorable position for them as a price for compliance with his regime. After Tito's death in 1980, Serbian claims to Bosnia began to grow.

The history of Bosnia and Herzegovina covers the period from the moment of the appearance of man in the current territory of this country to the present day. Despite this, the state itself arose only in the Middle Ages. Bosnia and Herzegovina gained independence in 1992.

In the 6th-7th centuries, the territory of Bosnia and Herzegovina was settled by the Slavs.
In the XII century, the Bosnian Principality was formed (from the XIV century a kingdom, including Herzegovina).
Since 1463, the territory of Bosnia, and since 1482 - and Herzegovina under the rule of the Ottoman Empire.
After the uprising of 1875-1877, it was occupied by Austria-Hungary (annexed in 1908). See Bosnian Crisis.
Since 1918, as part of the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes (since 1929 - Yugoslavia).
In 1941, it was occupied by German troops and included in the fascist Independent State of Croatia. During the war of 1941-1945. liberated by the troops of the People's Liberation Army of Yugoslavia under the command of Josip Broz Tito and in November 1945 included in Yugoslavia as a federal republic.
In the spring of 1992, she announced her withdrawal from the SFRY. Adopted the official name of the Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina, in May 1992 adopted by the UN.
In mid-1992, there was a sharp aggravation of interethnic conflicts, which led to the Bosnian War.
November 21, 1995 in Dayton (USA) initialed peace agreements to resolve the Bosnian conflict. Signed in Paris on 14 December 1995. Official name changed to Bosnia and Herzegovina.
Since the signing of the Dayton Accords, peace in the country is still fragile.

Bosnia and Herzegovina is a country with an amazing name (whose origin can be read). It keeps no less amazing things in itself and undoubtedly does not leave anyone indifferent. This is a country of contrasts, and after a little research, I realized that the history of Bosnia and Herzegovina confirms this. The state, which was once both under the rule of the Ottoman Empire and under Austria-Hungary, could not but absorb features both European and typically Eastern. Now Bosnia and Herzegovina is a federal state, which is inhabited by as many as three different peoples. It is the population of Bosnia and Herzegovina - Serbs, Bosniaks and Croats - that makes it so different, but at the same time incredibly interesting for a tourist who has already visited a huge number of countries and doubts that something could cause him such an unexpected " Wow"!

Unfortunately, many, having heard the name of this beautiful country, are wondering where Bosnia and Herzegovina is located. I answer: this is a state located on the Balkan Peninsula, which until 1992 was part of Yugoslavia. Now it is an independent country, which consists of three parts: the Republika Srpska, the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina and the Brcko District. The first is inhabited mainly by Serbs, the second by Bosniaks and Croats, and the third by all three peoples.

Both the flag and the coat of arms of the country are similar: a yellow triangle on a blue background and a series of five-pointed stars in addition (you can read about the history of the flag of Bosnia and Herzegovina ).

Visa and border crossing

Citizens of the Russian Federation do not need a visa to travel to Bosnia and Herzegovina. But it is worth stipulating the moment that you can stay on the territory as a tourist for a maximum of 30 days. If you want to extend your visit, you still have to apply for a visa. This can be done through the Embassy of Bosnia and Herzegovina, which is located in Moscow. Unfortunately, I personally did not spend more than 30 days there, so I cannot give advice on obtaining a Bosnian visa.
To cross the border, you need to have with you not only a valid passport, but also medical insurance, as well as a return ticket, although the latter may not be asked for. Personally, I am not aware of cases when someone was denied entry to Bosnia and Herzegovina, although I flew and went there more than once, so there should not be any problems at the border. Almost every time I arrive in Bosnia and Herzegovina, the procedure for checking documents takes a couple of minutes, after which I go further to cut through the expanses of this seemingly small, but such an immense country.

How to get there

Since Bosnia and Herzegovina is a rather big country, first you need to decide which cities and parts of it you want to visit. This is the decisive factor in the question of how to get to Bosnia and Herzegovina. Every time I think over my trip, I try to understand how it is more convenient to get to a particular city.

By plane

You can go the easy way and buy plane tickets from Moscow to the capital of Bosnia and Herzegovina. Unfortunately, choosing this method, you will have to buy a ticket with transfers. In my experience, I felt the beauty of such a flight - you arrive tired and lose a whole day on the road. For me personally, there are pluses in such trips: you can choose a ticket with a transfer in Vienna (in my opinion, one of the most convenient airports for such flights. Everything is very accessible and simple, even beginners who have never flown with transfers and, perhaps, even have problems with communication in English, they won’t get lost there: there are a lot of signs with pictures) and take a walk around the city instead of boring waiting on sofas at the airport (although, I confess, there are wonderful sofas at Vienna airport where you can relax, the main thing is not to oversleep your flight!). By the way, tickets from Moscow to with a transfer cost from 18 thousand rubles.

Airlines flying include Aeroflot, Austrian Airways, Air Serbia and Turkish Airlines. If this flight option does not make you very happy, you can do it differently: fly to the neighboring country of Bosnia and Herzegovina - Croatia or Montenegro and get from there by car or bus to your destination. Sometimes it's easier that way. Moreover, direct flights fly to these countries from Moscow. At the airports of Montenegro - and Podgorica - planes from Moscow land daily (and also from St. Petersburg on certain days). Serving airlines - Aeroflot, Montenegro Airlines, Red Wings, S7 Airlines. Prices range from 16 to 35 thousand. If you buy in advance, you can find it cheaper, but this is rare, since tickets to Montenegro are always expensive, especially during the season - in summer and on New Year's Eve. If you fly to Croatia, then you need to buy tickets from Moscow to Dubrovnik. S7 Airlines is flying and the ticket price is from 17 thousand rubles.

You can compare prices and choose a convenient docking.

By train

Traveling by train is far from the most popular option for tourists in Bosnia and Herzegovina. To be honest, few people use this type of transport (compared to buses), but of course there are trains, mostly for domestic trips. For example, you can drive from Mostar for only 5-6 euros (11 KM in local currency).

Unfortunately, it is impossible to get from Moscow to Bosnia and Herzegovina by train. The only option is to take it from Moscow to Montenegro or Serbia and from there take a bus to Bosnia and Herzegovina. To be honest, the pleasure is not cheap, and oh-oh-very debilitating. You will have to spend as much as 40 hours on the road just to Serbia and pay about 25,000 rubles for it. for a return ticket. The advantage is that trains depart from Moscow and Belgrade daily. But from Serbia you will have to take a bus to, since trains from Serbia to Bosnia and Herzegovina do not currently follow. The path through Montenegro (city) will be even longer and more expensive. Approximately 30 thousand rubles for 54 hours on the road! Trains leave Moscow every Monday, Wednesday and Friday and return from Bar on Monday, Thursday and Saturday. Again, you will have to change to a bus or car and use them to get to Bosnia and Herzegovina. Agree, such a trip is not for everyone.

By bus

There are no buses on the Moscow-Sarajevo route, so this travel option is no longer available. But as for domestic travel by bus, this is one of the cheapest ways to travel around the whole country. By the way, for little money you will go on pretty good buses. Personally, for me, comfort always comes first, so don't think that you will have to move around in a collapsing vehicle. There is no need to buy tickets in advance, you just need to come to the box office and purchase it on the spot. Bus tickets are quite cheap, especially compared to taxis, which cannot be called such.

By car

One way to get to Bosnia and Herzegovina is to come with your own car from Russia. Yes, the journey is long, exhausting, sometimes boring, and every time it seems to me personally that I will never reach my destination (and it takes about 2.5-3 days to cover 2500 thousand km). But if you are full of enthusiasm and want to enjoy a trip through half of Europe in order to come to this small but so pretty country in the Balkans, then this way is for you. The main thing is not to forget that you will have to pass through the EU countries, for entry into which you need a Schengen, as well as green cardboard. By the way, we passed through the Serbia-Bosnia and Herzegovina customs border very quickly, but we had to stand for a long time on the borders with the EU: Polish and Hungarian. From experience, I realized that it is best to travel on weekdays to avoid crowds at the borders.
The roads in Bosnia and Herzegovina are narrow but good, so driving a car should not be a big deal (unless you're driving for the first month, then it's not worth it). Moreover, having your own car, you can leisurely enjoy the gorgeous views that will occur every 5 minutes on the way, and take as many photos as you like.

By the way, car trips are very profitable if, for example, there are 4 of you in a car. You will have to spend about 300-400 euros on gasoline (one way), depending on your car and its costs, the price may fluctuate. Agree, 300 euros for four than almost the same for one (although round trip), a much more attractive option for those who follow the budget while traveling.

Top cities

Having first caught fire with the idea of ​​​​going to Bosnia and Herzegovina, any tourist (just like me at one time) will wonder what cities there are in this country at all and which ones are worth visiting in the first place.

I have my own must-see list of cities:

• is the capital of Bosnia and Herzegovina. Coming there and not visiting the capital is like coming to and not visiting Times Square. The assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand in 1914 took place here, which triggered the First World War. By the way, there is a museum in the city dedicated to this event. Personally, I love coming to the old city - Bascarsiju - it seems that you are not in the Balkan country, but in Istanbul. Here you can also try Turkish coffee, which, by the way, is drunk in incredible quantities in the Balkans and without which no visit is complete. Along with coffee, which is served in a cezve, you will also be served Turkish delight. Go beyond that and order some of the Turkish sweets that are simply amazing here. When I come to Sarajevo, I forget such words as diet and proper nutrition, because it's all worth trying. Where else, if not on vacation in? By the way, all this is very inexpensive by European standards.

• Mostar is another city in Bosnia and Herzegovina with traces of the Ottoman Empire everywhere. The main thing to visit in Mostar is the old town with a magnificent bridge, from where, by the way, daredevils jump into the blue waters of the Neretva River every year. I was personally shocked. Indeed, once there, there is a great desire to swim in this purest river, but usually the water is too cold.

• - a small town on the outskirts of Bosnia and Herzegovina, which can be easily reached from neighboring countries - Montenegro and Croatia. In this city you can enjoy narrow streets, beautiful churches, coffee in the shade of old plane trees and just take a walk in good weather. By the way, I highly recommend climbing Hercegovacku Gracanicu, which offers a stunning panorama of the entire city. It is here that you can take hundreds of photos for the whole year ahead and then brag about them to your instagram followers.

• Jahorina is a ski resort in Bosnia and Herzegovina. When I want to go skiing on a budget in the winter and enjoy my vacation to the fullest, I buy tickets and fly here - a very cool resort for those who want to cut through the snowy slopes without spending several salaries.

If you prefer to stay not in hotels, but in private apartments, you can familiarize yourself with the offers for renting apartments in Bosnia and Herzegovina.

Top attractions

• The Old Town, or rather the Old Bridge in Mostar. It is a UNESCO World Heritage Site and is truly mesmerizing. I don’t advise you to jump from the bridge (if you are not a professional in diving - the chances of injuring yourself are very high), but walking and taking pictures under it against its background is a must.

• Vjetrenica is a mesmerizing cave in the south of the country, a visit to which is a must for all lovers of the unusual. Before that, I had never been to any cave, so I experienced many emotions when I arrived at this place. But remember - it's cold inside, take warm clothes, even if it's +30 outside.

• Blagaj is another place that will be imprinted in the memory of any tourist. The green-blue waters of the river that flows in this town beckon to swim. However, a strong current makes you stand on the shore and enjoy these beauties only visually.

• Bridge in the city of Visegrad. The second of two UNESCO sites. The bridge, thanks to which the famous Serbian writer Ivo Andric received the Nobel Prize in Literature. Favorite place for locals. Indeed, the bridge is impressive, and the views that open from it will not leave anyone indifferent.

• Tvrdos Monastery is a beautiful monastery, which is located near the city. When we accidentally stopped by there on the way to Mostar, we were pleasantly surprised. The green area does not let you leave without enjoying the fresh air in the shade of the trees, and the wine cellars, which can also be visited, will not let you leave without a couple of bottles of delicious local wine.

• Kravice Waterfall - a waterfall, seeing which, I could not recover from delight for a long time. Is nature really capable of this? The spectacle is simply amazing, it is worth seeing. By the way, here for special fans of extreme sports there is an opportunity to take a specially trained person and ride a canoe with him.

Weather

The weather conditions in Bosnia and Herzegovina are conducive to traveling around the country all year round. Naturally, it all depends on which city you are going to stay in, but in general you will not find harsh winters with a 30-degree frost here.
In the northern cities, of course, it is colder, and in winter it is worth warming up by going on a trip. Unlike Moscow, the winter in Bosnia and Herzegovina may seem harsher, despite the fact that the thermometer does not seem to show severe frost. However, it is very windy in Bosnia and Herzegovina, which makes it difficult to enjoy relatively warm winters. Therefore, without a scarf and a hat, do not go outside, despite the thermometer.
Summer here is hot and 30 degrees Celsius is quite ordinary weather. So get ready to be hot. It was a pleasant surprise for me to discover the city's outdoor pools, in which residents spend hot days without being able to go to the sea. Feel free to go there and spend time sunbathing by the pool. Entrance to such pools is usually either free or costs symbolic money - about 2-3 euros (3-5 KM).
The best time to travel around the country is the end of April-May. Warm, but not hot, and all vegetation begins to bloom. A great opportunity to travel around all the interesting places without languishing from the heat or cold.

Moving around the country

So, you have arrived in Bosnia and Herzegovina and are thinking what to do now, how to get to neighboring cities, how to see the country in general. There are several ways to get around Bosnia and Herzegovina:

1. By bus. The cheapest, but not the most convenient and fastest. Buses run regularly, most often they are good, new vehicles, but there are also those where there are no air conditioners (in the summer you still don’t want to spend a couple of hours in a stuffy bus). You can arrive at Autobuska stanica (the main bus stop from where transport departs to other cities) and see what you have to go there. But for budget travel, you will not find a better and cheaper way to move around the country. For example, from (the capital of the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina) to the city of Banja Luka (the capital of the Republika Srpska) can be reached by bus for only 15 euros (29 KM), which, you see, is not so much, given that you have to overcome a long distance over 200 km.
   
2. By taxi. I advise you to use the services of taxi drivers only within the city and ride only official taxis. Often these cars are not marked with anything and there is no “TAXI” sign on them. How to understand that this is a taxi? Usually they stand in certain places of cars for 10-15 and work in turn: you get into the first car and go. Within the city it is very convenient to travel by taxi and quite cheap. For the trip you will give about 3-5 euros (depending on the city where you are). But traveling all over the country by taxi is expensive, so not everyone can afford to spend a lot of money just to get from one place to another.
   
3. By rented car. This is my favorite way. Yes, you can get from city to city by bus, but you won't be able to enjoy the road, you won't be able to stop at a roadside cafe for a glass of lemonade on a hot summer day, you won't be able to see those places that are not in the city center, and in the suburbs or even in villages, where no public transport goes. The only problem is expensive gasoline (compared to Moscow). Therefore, if you are a happy owner of a driver's license (by the way, according to the Vienna Convention on Road Traffic of 1968, in Bosnia and Herzegovina you can drive with only a Russian license with you, but in reality, not all police officers know about the existence of this document, so I advise you all - still carry an international driver's license with you so as not to waste time and nerves), feel free to rent a car. The prices here practically do not differ from the pan-European ones. That is, you will have to pay from 50 euros per day or more, depending on which car you prefer (with a manual or automatic transmission, it will be a simple opel or a brand new mercedes). For example, in the travelask section, you can see prices for different car brands and what is included in the rental price. Just be sure to make sure that the place where you rent a car has all the necessary documents (a license, for example) and, when concluding an agreement, make sure that in the event of an accident you will not have to cover all costs. By the way, different companies have different rules, but most often a car is issued to those who are over 21 years old and have a driving experience of more than 2 years, but again there may be slightly different conditions. Therefore, in order not to waste time, it is better to read about it in advance on the website of the company where you are going to rent a car.
   
4. To hitchhike. In my opinion, the most dangerous way. I personally never ride like that, especially alone. Still, you do not know the language (and even if you do, your safety is not guaranteed), you do not know anyone to whom you could turn for help. Do not risk it once again and better hit the road on an inexpensive bus.
   
5. There is no subway here and never was.
6. In large cities (, for example) there are trams and buses on which you can move around the city. Very convenient, safe and cheap. It costs about 1 euro. Buy a ticket in the transport itself or at kiosks. In small towns, this is not the case, since almost any place can be reached on foot.
   

Connection

What does a modern person need besides basic necessities? Of course, the Internet, without which, unfortunately, we cannot function normally even on vacation. Everyone who has been to Germany at least once, for example, knows that not only is it free, but wi-fi is hard to find in public places, and you have to pay for it in hotels.

In Bosnia and Herzegovina, things are much better with this! Rejoice, internet addicts. In almost all cafes and restaurants you can find an open network, which, by the way, is fast enough to safely check email and social networks.

As for hotels, in almost any Internet is provided free of charge and by default. The main thing is not to stay all day in the room because of this advantage. So despite the available wi-fi, it is better to walk around the city.

By the way, if suddenly the network is password-protected, ask the waiter for the password. Often it is written on the bottom of checks in small letters, since in some places the generator changes the password every day. So pay attention to it.

In general, there should be no problems with the Internet. Feel free to ask for help if you're having trouble connecting. A passport to connect in public places, like any identity document, is not required. I have never met such a network in Bosnia and Herzegovina where they would be asked to enter any personal data.

Naturally, you will have to contact friends, relatives or colleagues in Russia at least a couple of times. I advise you to use the Internet for these purposes, since you will not find a cheaper way to communicate. Calling from local SIM cards (I'm not talking about calls from Russian numbers at all) is very expensive! Money is written off in just a couple of seconds, so use wi-fi.

Language and communication

If you open a geography textbook or just a site on the Internet with general information about Bosnia and Herzegovina, you will see that in the column "language of Bosnia and Herzegovina" it is most often written: Bosnian, Serbian, Croatian. I would be very confused by this information. How to communicate with locals? Is it really necessary to learn as many as three languages ​​in order to live in Bosnia and Herzegovina without experiencing translation difficulties? Don't worry, it's not as scary as it might seem at first glance.

During the existence of Yugoslavia, all the peoples now living on the territory of Serbia, Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina and Montenegro spoke the same language - Serbo-Croatian or Croatian-Serbian. It's just that in different parts of the state there were different dialects and dialects. After the collapse of Yugoslavia, each part decided to stand out and introduce its own national language: Serbian, Bosnian, Croatian and Montenegrin. In fact, everyone understands each other and communicates calmly, without learning anything new. Yes, some words may differ (it's like British English and American English, in which the apartment is flat or apartment depending on the country), but in general everything is clear.

The language is very similar to Russian, so in 70% of cases you will understand the main idea of ​​your interlocutor without an interpreter. But don't expect to speak Bosnian/Serbian/Croatian right away. This is unlikely, the grammar is still difficult, without studying it with a teacher, it is almost impossible to master the language.

The further south and closer to the borders with Croatia and Montenegro, the more people understand Russian, the development of tourism motivates the population to learn the language. Therefore, in some parts of the country you do not have to strain with the translation, they will help you.

As for the English language, it is not spoken everywhere. In the capital - yes, in small towns most often you will not be understood. Of course, English is taught in schools, but so far not all employers require knowledge of English when applying for a job.

In order not to get into trouble and at the same time earn the attention and sympathy of the locals (after all, they love it so much when foreigners at least try to say something in their native language), I advise you to learn some phrases that will come in handy anyway.

So, let's begin:

1. Cao = Hello. You will hear "chao" a hundred times a day. Locals always greet and say goodbye, regardless of who they are dealing with. Feel free to say "chao" when entering a store/cafe/museum.
2. Zdravo=- Hello. If "chao" sounds like a rather informal greeting to you, you can say "healthy". But to say goodbye to this word, unlike the previous one, is not worth it. Use it only when greeting.
3. How ste? [kako ste] = How are you? It's always better to start a conversation with a little "nothing" conversation. If suddenly you are asked this question, it will be enough to answer the following phrase.
4. Dobro, hvala. [welcome, praise] = Good, thank you. You should not delve into your problems, especially since you are unlikely to have enough words to continue an interesting conversation.
5. Koliko kosta karta do...? [colico costa card to] = How much is the ticket to..? Useful phrase for buying tickets at the bus stop.
6. Know li, kako da dodjem do..? [know kako da dodge to] = Do you know how to get to..? If you are lost in the city or just do not know which way to go, ask a passerby.
7. Imate li...? [imate li] = Do you have...? How often do we go to the same grocery store while abroad and cannot find the right product because everything is written in the local language. With this phrase, you can get everything you need.
8. Mogu li dobiti racun? [Can I finish Rachun] = Can I get the score? In restaurants and cafes, you will certainly need this phrase. By the way, don't be surprised if the waiter gives you the bill and "stands over your soul" while waiting for you to pay. This is normal, most often there are no special envelopes for paying for dinner / lunch.
9. Hvala-Molim [praise-please] = Thank you - Please. Be polite. Always say thank you in the local language.
10. Gdje mogu da rucam? [where can da rucham] = Where can I have lunch? Sometimes you walk around the city and do not have time to go to a restaurant recommended by friends and acquaintances. Passers-by will come to the rescue, who, like no one else, know where the food is fresh and tasty in the area.

Don't be afraid to use phrases from Serbian/Bosnian/Croatian. Don't be afraid to make mistakes. Everyone understands that you are not a local, but when you try to please the inhabitants of the city, then the chances of getting some kind of secret recommendation from them are very high.

Features of the mentality

What can I say about the people of Bosnia and Herzegovina? They are very hospitable. Don't be surprised if the person you just met invites you over for coffee. A cup of coffee most often also means a full meal, so don't be scared, but feel free to agree. At the same time, practice the language, if suddenly you are trying to learn it.

I noticed that the locals are very fond of drinking. It is quite possible to meet a man sipping beer on a hot day in the workplace. Here, no one waits for the evening to have a few glasses of wine. By the way, sometimes after a couple of glasses, locals calmly get behind the wheel and drive home. Naturally, this is punishable by law and is very unsafe, so I advise you to be extremely vigilant if you catch passing cars. You don't want to drive with a drunk driver, do you?

The residents are very responsive. If they see that you need help, they will definitely try to make your life easier. Be smiling, as they are, and your trip will be exclusively in positive colors.

The locals are never in a hurry. Walk around the city in the middle of the working week, despite a lot of things to do? Easily. Therefore, do not run like a late Muscovite along the escalator in the subway, enjoy the moment, devote yourself to rest. This can be learned from the people of Bosnia and Herzegovina.

Food and drink

When I went to Bosnia and Herzegovina for the first time, I had no idea what food and drinks to try there. Everyone knows about Italian, Japanese, American, Russian cuisine, no matter who you ask. But what do we know about the cuisine of Bosnia and Herzegovina? What do they eat there? I think if you arrange a survey among ordinary passers-by, few people will answer this question for you.

It turns out that signature dishes depend again on what part of the country you are in. Bosniaks, Serbs and Croats have different national dishes, so it’s hard to recommend what to try in general, but there are still such dishes.

In general, food in Bosnia and Herzegovina is simple, but very fatty and high in calories. So forget about diets. Lots, no, A LOT of dough and meat. And, of course, you can not do without sweets, which are insanely delicious there.

As for drinks, wine is very popular here. And they make it themselves in the southern part of the country. Many families even have their own wineries! Therefore, I advise you to buy local and enjoy it.

Rakia is also made there in the country - a very strong alcohol that not everyone will like. Especially girls.

But do not forget that in the capital, for example, there are a lot of Muslim people who do not drink. Therefore, there are places where you cannot order alcoholic drinks for yourself: only coffee, water and juices.

Coffee is a different story. Here it is drunk everywhere and by everyone. I especially like its serving: in a Turk and with Turkish delight. You can also order Turkish, that is, excuse me, Bosnian sweets for him. Well, how can you resist?

By the way, do not be afraid to buy food on the street! Here, fresh products are used everywhere, so the chances of getting poisoned or infected with something are small. The meat in street stalls is really natural and normal, feel free to take it. For example, I love to eat baked chicken, which is cooked right in the vans in the middle of the road. Real jam. One of these vans can be found on the way from Mostar to Trebinje. If you happen to be there and see this place, be sure to stop and have a bite to eat there.

5 dishes worth trying

So, what should you try first? Here is a list of dishes without which your trip to this amazing country will be incomplete:

• Chevapi (cevapi). Sounds interesting, right? So what is it? These are fried meat sausages served with lots of onions in a large pita (called somun). Most often they are brought in portions of 5, 10, 15 pieces. I advise you to start with 5, and then decide whether you like it or not. Personally, I do not know anyone who would not be delighted with these sausages. Although it would seem that this is unusual? Try it and you will understand.

• Burek is a meat pie. From the classic pie that you usually eat, there is nothing here. Cooks use a special dough in which they put meat with onions. It is very tasty and very satisfying. The locals like to eat this [burek] with yoghurt, which I advise you too. The combination is amazing. Better, of course, this breakfast, for dinner greasy. By the way, if you suddenly don’t eat meat, you can buy pita with cheese, potatoes or herbs. They look the same as with meat. It doesn't taste worse. I recommend. By the way, all types of these pies are of two types: it is either a single round pie, which is cut into four parts, or a spiral pie. In my opinion, the first one is tastier, although there is only one recipe.

• Kaymak. This is a very delicate cheese (although, probably, it cannot be called cheese), which can and should be spread on bread and enjoy its taste. I personally prefer "young" kaimak (i.e. fresh, freshly cooked) as it literally melts in your mouth. The "old" kaimak is more tart, greasy, even slightly bitter and sour at the same time. It is worth trying both to understand which type of this dairy product you personally like.

• Lamb on a spit. This is the dish that, it seems to me, even a vegetarian will be forced to sin and eat a piece. Tender, moderately salty, with a crispy crust, meat that quickly disappears imperceptibly from the plates. I do not advise ordering something else for meat, because you will not be able to master it. Particularly impressionable, I ask you not to look at the process of cooking the lamb, as it does not look very pleasant, even a little intimidating. But the end result is just amazing!
• Baklava - local baklava. This is not at all the dry dessert that we buy in stores and eat with tea. It is a juicy sweetness filled with walnuts. They serve it in large pieces, which you are unlikely to master alone. Very sweet and high in calories, but it is impossible to resist without eating it at least once!

shopping

What you need to know about shopping in this country

When people tell me about shopping, the first thing I think about is the numerous boutiques in Milan, Italy. Is it just as good to go shopping in Bosnia and Herzegovina? To be honest, I wouldn't say so. Shopping and Bosnia and Herzegovina are a little different things. There are no endless streets with shops offering a variety of goods, especially in small towns. Of course, chain stores such as zara, bershka and the like are also here, but don't expect anything special.

Local clothing brands are not particularly famous, and I have never found something interesting and unique from them. Therefore, do not expect to spend half of your vacation in local shops.

The only good thing is the prices. Despite the unstable ruble exchange rate, it is still cheaper to buy clothes and shoes in Bosnia and Herzegovina. Therefore, if you suddenly found something after all, buy it without hesitation.

Products here are also cheaper than in Russia. Especially fruits and vegetables in the markets. I strongly advise you to go to the local market and buy products there, which are most often brought from the nearest gardens. It can be said that the now popular eco-production is without chemicals, which are stuffed with the food that we usually consume.

Bargaining is not accepted here. Especially in stores. You will be sold everything only at a fixed price, which is usually already low. In the market, you can try to ask to reduce the price, suddenly you are lucky.

The best cities for shopping

If you decide to go shopping, despite my excuses, then go either to the capital or to Mostar. It is in these two cities that you can find large shopping centers with boutiques, the same as in all cities in Russia. Remember: in the small towns of Bosnia and Herzegovina there are no large shopping centers at all, it makes no sense to go there for shopping.

In Mostar, the local trading house is called Mepas Mall. It is relatively large, and in principle you can find any clothes, shoes and cosmetics there. Not far from it there are other places where different boutiques are located. All shops are within walking distance from each other, so you can enjoy a stroll through the beautiful city at the same time. Many are mistaken in thinking that in the old town of Mostar you can shop well. This is not so, there you can only buy souvenirs for yourself and friends.

The map below shows that Bosnia and Herzegovina is a relatively large country (well, not compared to Russia, of course, but Montenegro is much smaller). Therefore, first you need to decide from which city and to which you are going to go. This is very important, because you can spend only an hour on the road, or you can spend the whole night!

All the Balkan countries are very beautiful and, of course, if possible, they are worth a visit.

You can get to Serbia, Croatia and Montenegro from Bosnia and Herzegovina by bus, taxi or rented car. The most affordable option is the bus, and if you are comfortable with intercity buses, feel free to buy your ticket at the local "bus stop" - where all intercity and international buses leave. In a few hours (depending on which city you want to go to) you will reach your destination. Taxi is the most expensive option in my opinion. You will have to shell out a rather large amount (for example, I paid 100 euros by taking a taxi from the city airport to the city in Bosnia and Herzegovina and this is only one way!). going to cross the border in a rented car). So you can travel by car in comfort throughout the trip and see a lot of interesting things that you can’t get to by bus, let alone walk. My advice to you is that if you have the opportunity to rent a car to cut through the narrow roads of Bosnia and Herzegovina and enjoy the beautiful views that this country and its borders give, use this chance.

If you have a lot of free time and you are not averse to a ride to a neighboring country, be sure to make this wish come true. I would go to the ethnovillage, which was built by the famous director Emir Kusturica (by the way, he was born in Bosnia and Herzegovina! If you haven’t watched his films, I advise you!). The place is called Drvengrad and there you can relax and take a break from the hustle and bustle (although 1-2 days is enough, longer it will be boring). As far as I know, the only way to get to the ethnic village is by car. What is there to do? Walk, breathe fresh mountain air, relax in local restaurants with live music and a glass of delicious homemade wine (by the way, in almost any restaurant in Serbia, Bosnia and Herzegovina and Montenegro, you can bring the so-called homemade wine. Local winemakers supply alcoholic products of their own production to restaurants. Agree, it is tasty and sometimes cheaper than the one in bottles). In general, I highly recommend going here, if only to admire the huge portrait of Dostoevsky on one of the wooden houses and see with your own eyes a sign with the inscription "Nikita Mikhalkov Street".

By the way, it is interesting that in different parts of the country there are different banknotes. No, of course, they will accept them anywhere, but the pictures on the money may differ. Pay attention to this: in the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina and in the Republika Srpska, different personalities are depicted on banknotes.

So, you came to the country with rubles/euro/dollars. Where to change? There are exchange offices in the country, they are called Mjenjacnica. Go boldly there and perform the necessary operations. The course, in principle, is the same everywhere, so there is no difference - to change at a bank or at an exchange office.

Rubles, of course, will not be accepted anywhere. You may even be asked what kind of money it is and whether you can see it, but you won’t be able to pay for a purchase or dinner with them. Dollars are also not valid in the country, they must be exchanged for KM.

The situation with the euro is slightly different. If you are in the south of the country (for example, in the city of Trebinje), in many places you can pay with euros (but only with banknotes, coins are not accepted, this is important! I asked the locals what this was connected with, but, unfortunately, I didn’t know the correct answer, it’s possible that it’s not always possible to exchange coins for local currency in banks, so it’s not profitable for cafe and shop owners to take that kind of money). Most often they will calculate by rounding as 1 to 2 (for 1 euro you get 2 KM). But as soon as you drive off only 50 km from the city, no one will agree to accept your money. I personally once got into an awkward situation, trying to pay off the euro in the store for a purchase in Mostar. They looked at me like I was crazy and sent me to the local exchange office. So do not even try, they will not take it, despite your persuasion.

I know that many people prefer to go on trips without cash, using only bank cards, they say, money can be stolen and change will have to be carried in their pockets. In Bosnia and Herzegovina, this approach is not very correct. Bank cards are not accepted everywhere, in particular in small towns. Locals, it seemed to me, rarely use them at all, preferring cash. Yes, in large shopping centers you can pay with a card, but in cozy small cafes and bakeries you may be refused. Therefore, I advise you to have at least a minimum of cash (for food, transport) in order to reach the nearest ATM and withdraw money. A few words about ATMs: of course, they take a commission, but it’s unlikely that your bank card currency is a convertible mark. It is in your interests to use not a ruble, but a euro card, because the commission will be much less.

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It is located in the southeast of Europe, on the Balkan Peninsula. It borders Croatia in the north and west, Montenegro in the southeast, and Serbia in the east.

The name of the country comes from the name of the river Bosna and the Hungarian he-rceg- "voivode". Capital. Sarajevo.

Official name: Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina

Capital: Sarajevo

The area of ​​the land: 51.1 thousand sq. km

Total population: 4.5 million people

Administrative division: Consists of two historical regions: Bosnia and Herzegovina.

Form of government: Republic.

Head of State: Chairman of the presidium, consisting of three members (Bosnian, Serb, Croat), who alternately replace each other in office every 8 months.

Composition of the population: Serbs 31%, Bosniaks 49% (Muslim Bosniaks), Croats 14%, others 0.6%

Official language: Bosnian (Bosanian), Serbian, Croatian

Religion: 40% - Muslims, 31% - Orthodox, 15% - Catholics, 14% - adherents of other faiths - 14%.

Internet domain: .ba

Mains voltage: ~230 V, 50 Hz

Phone country code: +387

Country barcode: 387

Climate

Moderate continental. The overall picture of the country's natural and climatic conditions is heterogeneous - in fact, here you can observe a wide variety of microclimatic zones associated with the features of the local relief - even neighboring sections of the same valley can differ markedly from each other in weather due to different topography. The characteristic features of the local climate also include a rapid change in local weather during the day, which is associated with different heating of the mountain slopes under the influence of sunlight, changing its azimuth and angle of incidence during the day.

The average temperature in summer in the valleys is from +16 to +27 C, and up to +10-21 in mountainous areas (in the capital, the average temperature in July is +21 C). In winter, from 0 C to -7 C, respectively (in the capital in January, about -1 C, but the temperature can drop to -16 C). Precipitation falls from 400 (eastern slopes of the mountains) to 1500 (western) mm per year, mainly in summer and early winter.

Geography

Bosnia and Herzegovina is a mountainous country located in the heart of the Balkan Peninsula in southeastern Europe. It borders with Croatia in the north, south and west (the total length of the border is 932 km), with Serbia in the east and with Montenegro in the south. A long and narrow "neumsky corridor" stretches between the borders of Croatia and Montenegro to the Adriatic coast (the coastline is only 20 km wide).

Bosnia occupies the northern part of the federation, along the valley of the Sava River and its tributaries. Herzegovina is located to the south, in the Neretva river basin. The Serbian Republic occupies the northeastern part of the country adjacent to Serbia. The total area of ​​the country is 51.1 thousand square meters. km.

Flora and fauna

Vegetable world

Forests occupy 41% of the country's territory. Indigenous broad-leaved forests are almost not preserved on the northern plains, which are currently occupied by agricultural land. In the north, in the foothills and on the slopes of the mountains up to a height of approx. 500 m grow oak and hornbeam forests with an admixture of maple and linden. In the central regions, beech trees are common, and above 800-900 m above sea level. - beech-fir forests with an admixture of maple, pine and spruce. In the upper mountain belt, above 1600–1700 m a.s.l., subalpine meadows are widespread. In the subtropics in the south-west of the country, evergreen forests (maquis) and deciduous shrubs are common up to a height of 300-400 m, higher in the mountains - forests of southern species of oak, hornbeam and maple.

Animal world

In the mountains of Bosnia and Herzegovina, there are chamois, red deer, roe deer, brown bears, wolves, wild boars, lynxes, forest cats, otters, martens, and many hares. Lizards, snakes, turtles are common in karst areas. The avifauna is rich. From large birds there are eagles, falcons, capercaillie. The mouth of the Neretva River is characterized by swampy landscapes. There are great and little egrets, various waterfowl, and birds of prey - golden eagle, greater spotted eagle, white-tailed eagle.

Banks and currency

Convertible mark (KM or BAM), equal to 100 pfennigs (fenigs). The convertible mark is equated to the euro in the proportion of 1KM = 0.51129 euros. There are banknotes in circulation in denominations of 200, 100, 50, 20, 10, 5, 1 and 0.5 marks (the latter is gradually withdrawn from circulation since March 31, 2003), as well as coins in denominations of 2 and 1 mark, 10, 20 and 50 pfennigs. Both federal units of the country issue their own versions of banknotes, on Bosnian stamps all the inscriptions are made in Latin, on Serbian stamps - in Cyrillic. But the colors and denominations of banknotes are the same, and banknotes of all issues are freely circulated throughout the country.

The Croatian kuna and the Serbian dinar are in circulation in the areas adjacent to their respective borders. US dollars and euros are virtually ubiquitous, although in many Serbian areas, dollars are practically worthless, usually only large hotels and banks accept them.

Banks are open from Monday to Friday from 08.00 to 19.00.

It is advisable to exchange money only in official institutions - banks, hotels and exchange offices, since when exchanging on the street, the percentage of fraud is very high. All receipts received when exchanging money should be kept, as they will be required for the reverse exchange when leaving the country.

Using credit cards is difficult. You can withdraw money from them only in the offices of the capital's banks, as well as in some hotels, restaurants, post offices and shops in the capital and Medugorye. Increasingly, ATMs began to appear, but for the most part they serve only Maestro and Visa cards.

Travel checks can only be cashed at bank offices, but the procedure for verifying their authenticity is extremely lengthy.

Useful information for tourists

Tipping is customary in taxis and expensive restaurants. It is advisable to exchange money only in official institutions - banks, hotels, exchange offices, because the possibility of fraud is high.

The standard of living in the country is extremely low, so it is not recommended to carry large amounts of cash with you in order to avoid robbery.

The official name is Bosnia and Herzegovina. It is located in the southeastern part of Europe, in the west of the Balkan Peninsula. The area is 51,129 km2. The population is approximately approx. 3.8 million people According to the last census (1991), 4.377 million people lived in the country. As a result of the military conflict in 1992-95, the population decreased significantly. The official languages ​​are Bosan, Serbian, Croatian. The capital is the city of Sarajevo (400 thousand people, 1991). Monetary unit - convertible mark (KM).

Member of the UN (since 1992), OSCE (since 1992), Council of Europe (since 2002), etc.

Sights of Bosnia and Herzegovina

Geography of Bosnia and Herzegovina

Bosnia and Herzegovina is located between 15° and 20° east longitude and 46° and 42° north latitude. It has a narrow (about 15 km) exit to the Adriatic Sea. The coastline is high, rocky, covered with islands.

It borders in the north, west and south with Croatia, in the east and southeast with Serbia and Montenegro.

The landscape is 90% mountainous. The mountains of the Dinaric system (highest point 2228 m) include two belts: the Bosnian ore mountains and the Dinaric highlands. The largest rivers are the Sava (940 km), Drina (460 km), Bosna (308 km), Neretva (218 km). Plains - in the valleys of the Sava (the southern outskirts of the Middle Danube Lowland) and the Neretva.

The mountains are dominated by mountain-forest brown soils, podzolized to varying degrees; in the upper belt of mountains - mountain-meadow soils. In intermountain depressions, chernozem-like soils are common in places. Chernozems in combination with alluvial meadow soils predominate in the Sava River valley.

OK. 40% of the territory is covered with deciduous and coniferous forests (beech, oak, pine, spruce). In the south - evergreen shrubs. Fauna: deer, chamois, wild goats, bears, wolves, foxes, wild boars, reptiles (lizards, snakes), the most common fish is trout.

Minerals: brown coal, iron and manganese ores, bauxite, salt; hydro resources.

In the north, the climate is temperate continental (600-800 mm of precipitation per year), in the mountains it is cool and humid (1500-2500 mm of precipitation per year). In summer, frequent fogs and rains, in winter - heavy snowfalls. In the south, under the influence of the Adriatic, a Mediterranean, mild, warm (hot in summer) climate prevails.

Population of Bosnia and Herzegovina

There is no complete information about the size and structure of the population. During the military conflict of 1992-95, approx. 250 thousand people, St. 30 thousand people, approximately 2 million people became refugees and displaced persons.

Infant mortality 13 people per 1000 newborns; the average life expectancy for men is 71 years, for women - 76 years.

Men - 48.7%, women - 51.3%; urban population - 43%. Age structure of the population: up to 14 years old - 17.8%, 15-64 years old - 70.5%, 65 years and older - 11.7%. The retirement age is 65 years. 95% have primary education, 57% - secondary.

Ethnic composition: the state-forming peoples of the Bosniaks (Slavs who profess Islam) - 43.6%, Serbs - 31.4%, Croats - 17.3%, the rest - 7.7% (Montenegrins, Macedonians, Albanians, Gypsies, Rusyns, Jews and etc.).

The most common languages ​​that coincide with the state ones are Bosan, Serbian, Croatian.

Main religions: Islam (Sunnis), Orthodoxy, Catholicism.

History of Bosnia and Herzegovina

The oldest population is the Illyrians. From the 1st century AD under the rule of Rome, in the 6th century. - Byzantium. In the 6th-7th centuries. the territory is inhabited by Slavs. In the 12th century the Bosnian principality was formed, headed by a ban (prince) - the most famous is ban Kulin (1180-1204). On the territory of the principality, Bogomilism became widespread, on the basis of which the so-called. Bosnian church. Medieval Bosnia reached its peak under Stephen I Tvrtko (1353-91), who significantly expanded his possessions and proclaimed himself king. A region in the south was annexed to the Kingdom of Bosnia, later called Herzegovina (in the 15th century, its ruler, Stepan Vukchich, who recognized his fief dependence on the German king, received the title of duke from the latter).

From 1463 the territory of Bosnia, and from 1482 - Herzegovina under the Ottoman yoke. A significant part of the population converted to Islam.

Resistance to Turkish rule acquired a particularly wide scope in the 19th century, culminating in the Herzegovinian-Bosnian uprising of 1875-78.

By decision of the Berlin Congress in 1878, B. and G. was occupied by Austria (annexed by Austria in 1908). The annexation of Bosnia and Herzegovina caused an acute political crisis in international relations. The assassination of the Austrian Archduke F. Ferdinand on June 28, 1914 in Sarajevo served as a pretext for the 1st World War. Since 1918, Bosnia and Herzegovina has been part of the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats, and Slovenes (since 1929 - the Kingdom of Yugoslavia). In 1941-45 it was occupied by Nazi Germany and included in the so-called. Independent State of Croatia.

In 1945-92 - as part of the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia as a republic. In 1992, independence was proclaimed in Bosnia and Herzegovina on the basis of the results of a referendum (the Serbian community, which boycotted the referendum, created its own entity - the Republika Srpska). These events caused an escalation of interethnic conflicts, which escalated into a large-scale military conflict that lasted until the autumn of 1995. The hostilities were stopped thanks to the active efforts of the international community. In accordance with the agreements reached in Dayton (USA), in Paris on December 14, 1995, the warring parties signed the "General Framework Agreement for Peace in Bosnia and Herzegovina", also known as the Dayton Agreement.

State structure and political system of Bosnia and Herzegovina

The state-building process of Bosnia and Herzegovina is in its initial stages. This is a state with a unique form of structure and government, combining elements of federation and confederation (the institution of collective presidency, the presence of two armies, etc.). The Constitution adopted in 1995 is in force (it is part of the Dayton Agreement).

Bosnia and Herzegovina consists of two entities (entities): the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina and the Republika Srpska.

The largest cities: Sarajevo, Banja Luka, Tuzla, Mostar, Zenica.

The function of the head of state is performed by a collective body - the Presidium of Bosnia and Herzegovina, which consists of three representatives of the constituent peoples. The highest legislative body is the Parliamentary Assembly (Parliament), which consists of two chambers (the House of Peoples and the House of Representatives). The highest body of executive power is the Council of Ministers.

Presidium of Bosnia and Herzegovina: B. Paravac (Serb), S. Tihic (Bosnjak) and D. Covic (Croat) (2003).

Collegium of the House of Peoples: V. Yukic (Croat), G. Milojevic (Serb) and M. Pamuk (Boshnak).

Board of the House of Representatives: S. Jafarovich (Bosnjak), N. Shpirich (Serb) and M. Raguzh (Croat).

The members of the Presidium of Bosnia and Herzegovina and the leadership of the parliamentary chambers rotate in place of the presiding officer every 8 months.

Head of the Council of Ministers - A. Terzic.

Members of the Presidium of Bosnia and Herzegovina and deputies of the House of Representatives are elected by direct secret ballot separately in each entity (a Serbian representative in the Presidium and 1/3 of the deputies of the House of Representatives from the Republika Srpska, representatives of Bosniaks and Croats in the Presidium and 2/3 of the deputies of the House of Representatives from the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina). The term of office is 4 years (the current composition was elected in 2002). The House of Nations (5 Serbs, 5 Bosniaks and 5 Croats) is formed by the Parliaments of the Entities.

Entities (the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina and the Republika Srpska) have broad powers with elements of state independence and have their own constitutions. The functions of executive and legislative power in each of the Entities are carried out by the president, government and parliament, which act virtually independently of the central authorities.

The party system is built on a national basis. The leading parties represent Serbs, Croats and Bosniaks: Serbian Democratic Party, Croatian Democratic Commonwealth, Democratic Action Party. Attempts are being made to create multi-ethnic parties (the most influential of them is the Social Democratic Party of Bosnia and Herzegovina).

Domestic policy is aimed at the implementation of the Dayton Agreement, which provides for the strengthening of state institutions, the return of refugees, the settlement of interethnic relations, and the modernization of the economy. A broad international presence (peacekeeping military contingent, the institution of the High Representative, etc.) has a significant impact on the internal life of the country.

The main foreign policy priorities are integration into European and Euro-Atlantic structures and regional cooperation.

The armed forces in Bosnia and Herzegovina are represented by two independent armies of the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina and the Republika Srpska in a ratio of 2: 1. The total strength is approx. 12 thousand people

Bosnia and Herzegovina has had diplomatic relations with the Russian Federation since 1995.

Economy of Bosnia and Herzegovina

GDP - 5.1 billion US dollars, GDP per capita - 1194 US dollars, number of employed - 625 thousand people, unemployed - 435.5 thousand people, unemployment rate 41%, inflation - 0.2% (2001).

Sectoral structure of the economy (in terms of contribution to GDP): industry - 25.3%, agriculture - 11.9%, services - 62.8%

The most important industries are: ferrous and non-ferrous metallurgy, production of electricity and building materials, metalworking, textile, leather and footwear, petrochemical, woodworking, food.

Agriculture: crop production, incl. grain farming (corn, wheat), horticulture, vegetable growing, viticulture, industrial crops (flax, tobacco, olives, sugar beets); grazing (cattle, sheep).

Transport: railways (1031 km, traffic volume 3.2 million tons), asphalt roads (3788 km), airports in Sarajevo (280 thousand people per year), Mostar (100 thousand people), Banja Luka (40 thousand people), Tuzla (special transportation).

Communication - telephone, postal, telegraph, teletype, radio, Internet, etc.

The tourism sector is in the process of recovery (before the military conflict, tourism revenues amounted to 2.5% of GDP) .

The economic policy is focused on two directions: the restoration of the economy destroyed during the hostilities and its reform on a market basis. Social problems are solved largely through foreign financial assistance.

The Central Bank of Bosnia and Herzegovina is pursuing a policy independent of the Bosnian authorities aimed at firmly supporting the exchange rate of the local currency KM against the euro. As a result, there is practically no inflation in the country, which is achieved essentially by non-economic methods. The banking system is in its infancy (40 commercial banks operate, some of them with foreign capital).

The state budget (KM 530 million for 2003) is formed on the basis of contributions from entities and performs limited functions: servicing external debt and financing the activities of national bodies. In the tax sphere, a process of reform is underway with the aim of introducing a single value added tax in the country. Domestic debt - approx. 8 billion KM, external - 5 billion KM.

Average salary - 686 KM.

The foreign economic sphere is distinguished by a significant trade deficit (export - 2.1 billion KM, import - 8.2 billion KM, 2002). Export structure - raw and processed aluminium, electricity, timber, textiles, leather goods; import - oil and oil products, food industry products, machinery and equipment, electronics. Main trading partners: Croatia, Italy, Germany, Slovenia, Serbia and Montenegro.

Science and culture of Bosnia and Herzegovina

Bosnia and Herzegovina has a three-tier education system. The first stage is the basic compulsory 8-year general education school, the second is a 4-year gymnasium or secondary vocational school, the third is universities (4-5 years of study). The main universities are in Sarajevo, Banja Luka and Mostar. The largest scientific center is the Academy of Sciences and Arts of Bosnia and Herzegovina.

The culture of Bosnia and Herzegovina was formed under the influence of various traditions. The surviving ancient buildings bear the imprint of the Roman era, the Middle Ages are distinguished by a mixture of Byzantine and Central European styles. Under the Turks, numerous mosques, madrasahs and bridges were created, many of which became widely known architectural monuments (Begova and Ali Pasha mosques in Sarajevo, the Old Bridge in Mostar, the bridge in Visegrad, etc.). For con. 19 - beg. 20th century typical imitation of Eastern and Renaissance culture (the building of the city hall "Vechnica" in Sarajevo). Along with mosques, majestic Orthodox and Catholic churches have been created here (the Church of the Holy Virgin and the Cathedral in Sarajevo). During the military conflict, a significant number of architectural and historical monuments on the territory of Bosnia and Herzegovina were completely or partially destroyed.

The complex and dramatic history of this country has left a significant imprint on Bosnian literature and art. The best works are devoted to the philosophical understanding of the difficult fate of the Bosnian peoples (novels by Nobel laureate I. Andric and M. Selimovic, paintings by I. Muezinovich, etc.). The work of internationally recognized film directors E. Kusturica and D. Tanovich is connected with Bosnia and Herzegovina.

The purposes of the post-war restoration of the cultural traditions of Bosnia and Herzegovina are the international events held annually in Sarajevo: the Sarajevo Winter and Bascarshia Nights music festivals, the Experimental Theater Festival, and the Sarajevo Film Festival.