LINGUISTICS (linguistics) is the science of natural human language and, in general, of all languages ​​of the world as its individual representatives, the general laws of the structure and functioning of human language. There are the most general and specific branches of linguistics. General, one of the large sections of linguistics, deals with the properties inherent in any language, and differs from private linguistic disciplines, which are distinguished in linguistics by their subject - either by a separate language (Russian studies), or by a group of related languages ​​(romance studies).

Scientific linguistics originated at the beginning of the 19th century in the form of general and comparative historical linguistics. The main directions in the history of linguistics: logical, psychological, neogrammatical, sociological and structural linguistics.

In modern linguistics, the traditionally established division of disciplines is preserved.

Disciplines about the internal structure of language, or "internal

linguistics", these include: phonetics and phonology, grammar (with a division into morphology and syntax), lexicology (with a focus on phraseology), semantics, stylistics and typology.

Disciplines on the historical development of language: history of language:

historical grammar, comparative historical grammar, history of literary languages, etymology.

Disciplines that deal with complex problems and arise at the intersection of sciences: psycholinguistics, mathematical linguistics, engineering linguistics (sometimes understood as an applied discipline), applied linguistic disciplines proper: experimental phonetics, lexicography, linguistic statistics, paleography, history of writing, linguistic decipherment of unknown writings and others .

1. Moscow linguistic school

Since the end of the 19th century, schools of linguistics, both Western and domestic, began to take shape, within which certain traditions of language learning developed: methodological views on science, solutions to fundamental issues of the emergence of languages, their evolution, etc. In Russia at the end of the 19th century, two large linguistic schools emerged - Moscow and Kazan. Their founders were two great Russian linguists - Philip Fedorovich Fortunatov and Ivan Aleksandrovich Baudouin de Courtenay. Naturally, the basic views on language and the ways of studying it by the “founding fathers” subsequently influenced the research of their students. Fortunatov's scientific interests, for example, included questions of the sound evolution of languages, the relationship between language and thinking, grammatical theory, theory of syntax, etc. Fortunatov and his students have always been distinguished by the rigor of their scientific research. Among his students were Shakhmatov, Pokrovsky, Porzhezinsky, Lyapunov, Thomson, Budde, Ushakov, Peterson and others. The ideas of the founders of the school and their basic scientific principles were preserved by the next generation of linguists Avanesov, Reformatsky, Sidorov, Kuznetsov. This generation was distinguished by its open-mindedness and interest in new methods of language research. A new direction appeared in science at that time - phonology. It was this problem that became one of the central ones for the third generation of representatives of the Moscow linguistic school. In the 30s and 40s of the 20th century, a phonological theory was formed on the basis of the then new structural methods of studying language and Baudouin De Courtenay’s teaching on the phoneme. The new direction was called the Moscow Phonological School, which subsequently became widely known throughout the world.

2. Ivan Alexandrovich Baudouin De Courtenay (Jan Ignacy) (1845-1929)

2.1 Biography

The scientist’s unusual surname goes back to the ancient French family of De Courtenay, and his ancestors ruled in the Latin Empire, a state founded by the crusaders in Constantinople. Later, one branch of the family moved to Poland, and Ivan Alexandrovich himself belonged to the Polish nobles. He was born in Radzymin near Warsaw, in the part of Poland that was part of Russia; graduated from the University of Warsaw. Having completed his studies abroad and defended his doctoral dissertation at the age of 29, Baudouin de Courtenay went to teach at Kazan University. It was in Kazan that he found himself as a scientist: his scientific concept was formed there. Later, de Courtenay worked in St. Petersburg, where he also had many students. He actively participated in political life, advocating for the rights of the languages ​​of the small peoples of Russia, for which he was arrested in 1914. In 1918 he returned to Poland, where he was engaged in political activities. Baudouin-De Courtenay died in Warsaw on November 3, 1929.

2.2 Scientific activities

Baudouin De Courtenay is a major Russian and Polish linguist.

He revolutionized the science of language: before him, the historical direction dominated in linguistics, and languages ​​were studied exclusively from written monuments. Baudouin proves that the essence of language is in speech activity, and calls for the study of living languages ​​and dialects. Only in this way can one understand the language mechanism and verify the correctness of linguistic descriptions. The importance of this new approach to language learning can be compared to the role played by the principle of experiment in the natural sciences: without experimental verification, a theory is dead.

Working in Kazan in 1874-1883, the scientist founded the Kazan linguistic school, within which the talent of the outstanding scientist Bogoroditsky flourished, and under his direct influence the formation of the remarkable Russian linguists of the 20th century Shcherba and Polivanov took place. Later he founded the St. Petersburg School of Linguists.

Courtenay's students took an active part in the development of new alphabets for the languages ​​of the peoples of the former USSR.

Baudouin De Courtenay himself studied various Indo-European languages ​​for many years, which he mastered so much that he wrote his works not only in Russian and Polish, but also in German, French, Czech, Italian, Lithuanian and other languages. He spent several months on expeditions, studying Slavic languages ​​and dialects, and at the same time carefully recording all their phonetic features. At that time, such a method of studying language seemed strange to many: after all, linguistics was an armchair, book science. His discoveries in the field of comparative (typological) analysis of Slavic languages ​​anticipated the emergence of ideas that were later reflected in the works of the outstanding Slavic typologist Jacobson. From Baudouin's phonetic works grew his theory of phonemes and phonetic alternations, which still retains its scientific value. The theory is outlined in his “Experience in Phonetic Alternations” (1895). The logical development of the theory of phonemes was the theory of writing created by Baudouin. It contained many of the basic ideas and concepts that appear in modern works. Thus, Baudouin acted as the founder of phonology and the predecessor of Trubetskoy’s theory.

The principles of studying phonetics and grammar for Baudouin de Courtenay were determined by a psychological approach to language. A new stage in the development of phonetics began with the birth of experimental phonetics. For the first time, it became possible to use instruments to study the acoustic properties of the human vocal apparatus. In this regard, Baudouin De Courtenay distinguished between two different disciplines that study speech sounds. One of them is acoustic-physiological phonetics, which studies the objective properties of sounds using instruments. Another De Courtenay gave the name "psychophonetics", but later the term phonology was established for it.

Baudouin De Courtenay was the first to use mathematical models in linguistics. He proved that it is possible to influence the development of languages, and not just passively record all the changes occurring in them. Based on his work, a new direction arose - experimental phonetics. In the 20th century, scientists achieved outstanding results in this area.

Baudouin considered linguistics as a psychological and social science, taking the position of psychologism, he considered the language of the individual to be the only reality, but at the same time he strived for an objective approach to language, he was one of the first to raise the question of precise methods in linguistics, and proposed to isolate words on the basis of strict procedures. For the first time in world science, he divided phonetics into two disciplines: anthropophonics, which studies the acoustics and physiology of sounds, and psychophonetics, which studies ideas about sounds in the human psyche, i.e. phonemes; Subsequently, these disciplines began to be called phonetics and phonology, respectively, although some of Baudouin's direct students tried to preserve his terminology. He introduced the terms “phoneme” and “morpheme” in their modern understanding into the science of language, combining the concepts of root and affix in the general concept of morpheme as the minimum significant unit of language. He was one of the first to refuse to consider linguistics only a historical science and studied modern languages. He researched the question of the causes of language changes and studied sociolinguistics. He polemicized with the logical approach to language, the neogrammatical concept of sound laws, and the use of the “organism” metaphor in the science of language.

Courtenay was the first to identify the main unit of phonology - the phoneme. This term existed before, but Baudouin De Courtenay gave it a new meaning: the phoneme, unlike sounds, exists quite objectively, in the same way for everyone. As the smallest unit of language, it belongs to the human consciousness, and not to the stream of sound speech. A phoneme combines sounds that are indistinguishable to a native speaker. Baudouin De Courtenay, when isolating phonemes, directly relied on the “linguistic instinct” of native speakers. Of course, the psychological perception of the phoneme is reflected in alphabetic writing.

Another unit of language, first identified by I.A. Baudouin De Courtenay, was a morpheme (from the Greek word for "form"). De Courtenay also associated the concept of morpheme with the human psyche. The concept of morpheme, like phonemes, has firmly entered the world science of language. One of the first in world science, Baudouin De Courtenay posed the question of what a word is; it turns out that a word can be defined in different ways, and its various properties require the identification of different units, which may not coincide with each other and with what is usually called a word.

All the listed problems I.A. Baudouin De Courtenay looked at the material of modern languages, without turning to linguistic history. Baudouin de Courtenay was interested not only in how exactly this or that sound changed in any language, but also in the search for patterns of linguistic changes. He tried to identify the reasons for such changes.

Baudouin De Courtenay radically revised and prepared the third and fourth editions of Dahl's dictionary, making it more orderly, clarifying the etymologies, correcting the division into nests (Dal's is often arbitrary), and also adding new words to it, including introducing the vulgar word that was missing from Dahl. swear words. He was subjected to severe criticism for his additions; in Soviet times, Dahl's Baudouin Dictionary was not republished. Soviet-era reissues are based on the original text of the second edition of Dahl's dictionary; Baudouin's version is usually considered an independent dictionary. With the active participation of De Courtenay, a reform of Russian spelling was prepared, carried out in 1917-1918.

He was the first professional linguist to pay serious attention to the artificial international languages ​​that were being created at that time, and repeatedly acted as a supporter of Esperanto.

Conclusion

The fact that in his historical research I.A. Baudouin De Courtenay always sought to identify the general direction of development of languages, which allowed him to understand one of the most important patterns in the history of the Russian language. Baudouin de Courtenay discovered that many apparently different phonological changes reflected the same trend in his study of written records. The role of vowels in distinguishing words has steadily weakened, while the role of consonants, on the contrary, has strengthened. De Courtenay believed that linguistics should be able not only to explain the facts of the past, but also to predict the development of languages ​​in the future. Baudouin De Courtenay was right: and in the 20th century, Russian phonology develops precisely in the indicated direction. Baudouin De Courtenay was also right that modern linguistics pays the greatest attention to “living languages ​​accessible to observation”; the importance of the experiment has increased; Linguistics is becoming increasingly closer to psychology and sociology; psycholinguistics and sociolinguistics have emerged as special disciplines. Finally, as Baudouin-De Courtenay predicted, linguistics has become a “more exact science” that increasingly uses “quantitative, mathematical thinking.”

Courtenay called himself an “autodidact” and did not consider himself anyone’s student. In Russia, he is rightfully considered a national linguist. Ivan Aleksandrovich was an outstanding linguist of his time. He lived a long and generally happy life, although it included forced separation from his native land and even imprisonment. The scientific activity of Baudouin De Courtenay was diverse, it was full of research and creativity.

Courtenay made an invaluable contribution to the science of language; he developed various methods and theories of language development, and contributed to its division into special systems. He was ahead of his time, and many of the ideas he expressed began to be developed in depth in linguistics only decades later.

2. Encyclopedia for children. Linguistics. Russian language. (Editor-in-chief M. Aksyonova).

3. Encyclopedic Dictionary of a Young Philologist (linguistics). (Editor-in-Chief G.V. Stepanov).

4. "Baudouin de Courtenay Ivan Andreevich." (article from the Encyclopedic Dictionary of Brockhaus and Efron)

5. "Selected works on general linguistics." (Baudouin De Courtenay I.A. 1963)

6. "Baudouin de Courtenay, Ivan Alexandrovich." (Article from the free Internet encyclopedia Wikipedia)

7. . "Russian linguists"

8. Article from the website of educational and reference material “Russian phonetics”. http://phonetica. philol. msu.ru/nn/n4

BAUDOUIN DE COURTENAY (Baudouin de Courtenay) Ivan Alexandrovich, Russian and Polish linguist, corresponding member of the St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences (1897). He graduated from the Main School in Warsaw (1866), then studied at Charles University in Prague, at the University of Berlin and Jena (1866-68).

In 1868 he came to St. Petersburg, where he underwent linguistic training under the guidance of I. I. Sreznevsky. In 1870-75 he taught comparative linguistics at St. Petersburg University. Professor at Kazan (1875-83), Dorpat (now Tartu) (1883-93), Krakow (1893-1899) universities. In 1900-18 at St. Petersburg University (professor since 1901, dean of the Faculty of History and Philology in 1909-10). Since 1918 he lived in Warsaw.

Baudouin de Courtenay is one of the most prominent representatives of general and Slavic historical and comparative linguistics, the founder of the Kazan linguistic school, later the St. Petersburg (Leningrad) school in linguistics, a specialist in the problems of contacts of South and West Slavic dialects with non-Slavic languages. The main directions in the research work of Baudouin de Courtenay are Slavic, Polish, Russian and general linguistics. He also carried out research in the field of psycholinguistics on the material of Russian and related languages ​​(“On the mental foundations of linguistic phenomena”, 1903; “The difference between phonetics and psychophonetics”, 1927), the connection between writing and spoken speech (“On the relationship of Russian writing to the Russian language” , 1912).

The main merit of Baudouin de Courtenay is the construction of the theory of phonemes and phonetic alternations, which introduces a distinction between the sound of speech and the basic phonetic unit of language - the phoneme. The main provisions of the phonological theory of Baudouin de Courtenay had a decisive influence on the development of phonetics, and through it on general linguistics. This influence is found in the works of L. V. Shcherba (from 1909), and later (from 1929) - in the works of the Prague Linguistic Circle.

Baudouin de Courtenay analyzed the concept of the kinship of languages ​​and gave an overview of the Slavic languages, which retains scientific significance. He justified the comparison of genetically unrelated languages, believing that this would help discover the most general patterns of their development.

Edited and expanded “Explanatory Dictionary of the Living Great Russian Language” by V. I. Dahl (3rd ed., 1903-09; 4th ed., 1912-14).

Works: Selected works on general linguistics. M., 1963. T. 1-2.

Lit.: Shcherba L.V.I.A. Baudouin de Courtenay. [Obituary] // News on Russian language and literature of the USSR Academy of Sciences. 1930. T. 3. Book. 1; Bogoroditsky V. A. The Kazan period of the professorial activity of I. A. Baudouin de Courtenay (1875-1883) // Prace filologiczne. 1931. T. 15. Cz. 2; I. A. Baudouin de Courtenay. 1845-1929. (On the 30th anniversary of his death). M., 1960 (bib.); Jakobson R. Kazanska szkota polskiej lingwistyki i jej meijsce w swiatowym rozwoju fonologii // Biuletyn polskiego towarzystwa jçzykoznawczego. 1960. Zesz. 19.

Ivan Aleksandrovich Baudouin de Courtenay (or Jan Niecisław Ignacy Baudouin de Courtenay; Polish: Jan Niecisław Ignacy Baudouin de Courtenay, March 1 (13), 1845, Radzymin near Warsaw - November 3, 1929, Warsaw) - Polish and Russian linguist. Baudouin de Courtenay studied various Indo-European languages ​​for many years, wrote his scientific works not only in Russian and Polish, but also in German, French, Czech, Italian, Lithuanian and other languages. Working on expeditions that explored Slavic languages ​​and dialects, he recorded all their phonetic features. His discoveries in the field of comparative (typological) analysis of Slavic languages ​​anticipated the emergence of ideas that were later reflected in the works of the outstanding Slavic typologist R. O. Yakobson. These studies allowed Baudouin de Courtenay (taking into account the ideas of his early deceased younger colleague, the talented N.V. Krushevsky, also a Pole who worked in Kazan) to create a theory of phonemes and phonetic alternations. The theory is outlined in his “Experience on Phonetic Alternations” (1895). Its logical continuation was the theory of writing created by the scientist. Thus, Baudouin acted as the founder of phonology and the predecessor of the theory of N. S. Trubetskoy. Baudouin de Courtenay was the first to use mathematical models in linguistics. He proved that it is possible to influence the development of languages, and not just passively record all the changes occurring in them. Based on his work, a new direction arose - experimental phonetics.

Ferdinand de Saussure(French Ferdinand de Saussure, November 26, 1857, Geneva - February 22, 1913) - Swiss linguist who laid the foundations of semiology and structural linguistics, who stood at the origins of the Geneva School of Linguistics. The ideas of Ferdinand de Saussure, often called the “father” of 20th-century linguistics, had a significant influence on 20th-century humanities as a whole, inspiring the birth of structuralism. The main work of F. de Saussure is “Course of General Linguistics” (French “Cours de linguistique générale”). Semiology, which is created by Ferdinand de Saussure, is defined by him as “a science that studies the life of signs within the framework of the life of society.” “She must reveal to us what the signs are, by what laws they are governed.” De Saussure argues that semiology should be part of social psychology and determining its place is the task of the psychologist. The task of the linguist is to find out what distinguishes language as a special system in the totality of semiological phenomena. Since language is one of the systems of signs, linguistics turns out to be part of semiology. De Saussure sees the determination of the place of linguistics among other sciences precisely in its connection with semiology: “if for the first time we manage to find linguistics a place among the sciences, it is only because we have connected it with semiology.” Memoir on the original vowel system in Indo-European languages” (French. Mémoire sur le système primitif des voyelles dans les langues indo-européennes; written in 1878, published with the date 1879) glorified the 21-year-old Saussure in scientific circles, although it was received ambiguously by scientists. In the Memoir, which was already marked by a structuralist approach to language, Saussure hypothesized the existence in the Indo-European proto-language of vowels lost in the daughter Indo-European languages, traces of which can be discovered through the study of Indo-European roots and vowel alternations. The ideas presented in the Memoir began to actively develop only five decades later. In 1927, after the death of de Saussure, Kurilovich found confirmation of Saussure's theory in the deciphered Hittite language - a phoneme was discovered that, according to the latter's assumption, should have existed in the Indo-European proto-language. After this, the laryngeal hypothesis, based on the ideas of de Saussure, began to gain more and more followers. Today "Memoir" is considered as an example of scientific foresight.

Historical meaning:

F. de Saussure, along with C. S. Peirce (as well as G. Frege and E. Husserl), became one of the scientists who laid the foundations of the science of signs and sign systems - semiology (or, if follow the more common terminology of C.S. Peirce today - semiotics). In linguistics, the ideas of Ferdinand de Saussure stimulated a revision of traditional methods and, in the words of the famous American linguist Leonard Bloomfield, laid “the theoretical foundation for a new direction of linguistic research” - structural linguistics. Going beyond linguistics, de Saussure's approach to language became the primary source of structuralism - one of the most influential trends in humanitarian thought of the 20th century.

Charles Bally(French Charles Bally, February 4, 1865, Geneva - April 10, 1947, Geneva) - Swiss linguist, one of the outstanding linguists of the 20th century. Works on general and comparative historical linguistics, French and German languages, stylistics. Honorary Doctor of the Sorbonne (1937). One of the founders of the Geneva Linguistic School. Bally's key theme was the expression of "subjectivity" in language, which he understood as the widest possible range of means of reflecting the personality and emotions of the speaker; hence his long-term interest in stylistics, which he considered a full-fledged linguistic discipline (Traité de stylistique française, 1909, Russian translation. French stylistics, 1961, as well as Le langage et la vie, 1913 and many subsequent editions; Russian translation Language and Life , 2003). The most famous is Bally's book Linguistique générale et linguistique française (1932, 2nd ed. 1944; Russian translation General linguistics and issues of the French language, 1955 - one of the first post-war translations in the USSR by a foreign linguist). In the book, summing up the author’s previous works, many deep ideas were expressed about the nature of variability and evolution of language, about the relationship between morphology and syntax, about the specific structure of the French language, etc., but the main contribution to the theory of language is considered to be the concept of modality and communicative organization outlined by Bally proposals that were significantly ahead of their time. Bally’s theory of modality had a great influence on both French (Benveniste and others) and Russian linguistics, in particular, on the interpretation of modality in the works of V. V. Vinogradov (the latter also relied heavily on Bally’s work on stylistics and phraseology) .

Structuralism and its schools:

Prague Linguistic School:

Wilem Mathesius(Czech Vilém Mathesius, August 3, 1882, Pardubice - April 12, 1945, Prague) - Czech linguist, founder and first president of the Prague Linguistic Circle. Vilém Mathesius entered the history of linguistics primarily as one of the first researchers of the phenomenon of “actual division” of a sentence. Interest in this issue stems entirely from the general theoretical constructions of the scientist, who advocated a consistently functional approach to linguistic phenomena. Linguistics, according to Mathesius, is divided into two levels, corresponding to two “levels of coding”: functional onomatology, that is, the science of the refraction of reality in language, and functional syntax. In 1924, he defines a sentence as “the elementary speech utterance by which the speaker or writer reacts to some reality, concrete or abstract; this speech utterance, from the formal side, realizes the grammatical capabilities of a given language and is subjectively (from the point of view of the speaker or writer) complete.” Interest in the relationship between the function of a sentence and its “formal side,” specific to each language, also explains Mathesius’ active work in the field of synchronic contrastive linguistics, of which he was one of the founders. A large number of the scientist’s works are devoted to a comparative analysis of the English and Czech languages ​​within the framework of his own contrastive theory, which he called “linguistic characterology.” Mathesius's famous work “On the so-called actual division of a sentence” also begins with the contrast between “actual” and “formal” division - the first clarifies the way a sentence is included in the context, while the second decomposes a sentence into formal grammatical units. To include a sentence in the context, it is necessary to highlight the “starting point” - information already known to the listener or reader, updated in a given speech situation - and the “core of the utterance”, that is, the new information that is communicated in the sentence. In modern linguistics, Mathesius’s concepts of “starting point” and “core of the situation” usually correspond to the terms “topic” and “rheme” (in the English-speaking tradition, often “topic” and “comment”).

Prince Nikolai Sergeevich Trubetskoy(4 (16) April 1890, Moscow - June 25, 1938, Vienna) - an outstanding Russian linguist; also known as a philosopher and publicist of the Eurasian movement. The main work is “Fundamentals of Phonology”. Creator of the method of oppositions in phonology.

Roman Osipovich Yakobson(eng. Roman Jakobson, October 11 (23), 1896, Moscow - July 18, 1982, Boston, USA) - Russian and American linguist and literary critic, one of the largest linguists of the 20th century, who influenced the development of the humanities not only with his innovative ideas, but also active organizational activities. Member of the First Russian Avant-Garde. Works on the general theory of language, phonology, morphology, grammar, Russian language, Russian literature, poetics, Slavic studies, psycholinguistics, semiotics and many other areas of humanities.

Danish structuralism (school of glossematics):

Louis Hjelmslev(Danish: Louis Hjelmslev, October 3, 1899 - May 30, 1965) - Danish linguist, founder of the Copenhagen Linguistic Circle, developed an original structuralist theory with a significant mathematical component (glossematics).

Features of the theory:

 Empirical principle. A scientific description must satisfy three conditions: consistency, completeness (i.e., it must cover all elements without remainder) and simplicity (the number of initial elements must be minimal).

 Immanence. The theory should use only formal definitions, avoiding the real definitions that prevail in the humanities. Formal definitions do not describe objects and do not reveal their essence, but correlate them with already defined objects.

 Deductive nature of linguistic analysis. Carrying out analysis from above, from the text and bringing it to further indivisible elements. The purpose of the analysis: by studying the process (text), to obtain knowledge about the system that lies behind this text and forms its basis. This will make it possible to construct any theoretically possible texts in any language (even one that does not yet exist).

 Panchrony. The main interest of the theory must be in the invariant features of structure, which is a timeless entity. In relation to structure, specific languages ​​are just special cases of its implementation.

Key ideas:

Language is understood as a structure. Glossematics is emerging as an extreme direction, strictly formalized in the spirit of the requirements of mathematics, logic, semiotics and the philosophy of neopositivism in the view of language.

Four-member division of speech activity “scheme - norm - usage - act of speech”. Identification in the language of the plane of expression and the plane of content with a further distinction between form and substance in them.

Language as a special case of semiotic systems.

American structuralism:

Boas Franz(07/09/1858, Minden, Germany, -12/21/1942, New York) - American ethnographer, linguist, anthropologist, archaeologist, folklorist and cultural scientist, professor at Columbia University, founder of ethnographic linguistics, the “historical school” of American ethnography of culture and American folklore society. The name of Boas is associated with the flourishing of research into material and spiritual culture, as well as folklore and languages ​​of the American Indians; his students are many outstanding American linguists and anthropologists of the 20th century, including Alfred Kroeber, Edward Sapir, Joseph Greenberg, Ruth Benedict and others.

Boas's views also influenced R. Jacobson and C. Lévi-Strauss. In particular, Jacobson associated his concept of grammatical meaning with the work of Boas.

Edward Sapir ( English Edward Sapir, January 26, 1884 – February 4, 1939) was an American linguist and ethnologist.

Sapir was one of the largest and most influential linguists of the first half of the 20th century; he was responsible for pioneering achievements in linguistic typology, phonology, and sociolinguistics. He studied many Indian languages ​​of North America and put forward a number of hypotheses about their genetic connections. His works influenced American descriptivism, but in the second half of the century they were actively used by representatives of the functional and generativist movements.

In his works, Sapir expressed some ideas close to the “hypothesis of linguistic relativity,” which was then most consistently formulated by Benjamin Lee Whorf. Therefore, this hypothesis is known as the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis.

Benjamin Lee Whorf(English: Benjamin Lee Whorf, April 24, 1897, Winthrop, Massachusetts - July 26, 1941, Wethersfield, Connecticut) - American linguist, specialist in American Indian languages ​​and author of the so-called. the "linguistic relativity" hypothesis, also known as the "Sapir-Whorf hypothesis".

Leonard Bloomfield(English Leonard Bloomfield, April 1, 1887, Chicago - April 18, 1949, New Haven, Connecticut) - American linguist, professor, one of the founders of the descriptive direction of structural linguistics. One of the outstanding linguists of the 20th century. Works on Indo-European studies, Tagalog, Algonquian languages, general morphology, general theory of language. In 1933, his main book “Language” was published (the original version of this work was published back in 1914), which became (along with the works of Saussure, Sapir, Trubetskoy and Hjelmslev) one of the most famous linguistic works of the first half of the 20th century and played the role of a theoretical manifesto American descriptivism - a movement that reigned supreme in US linguistics until the late 1950s. Bloomfield's later theoretical work (Linguistic Aspects of Science, 1939), however, did not achieve the same significant resonance. From his works of the late 1930s - early 1940s. The most significant studies are considered to be studies on the grammar of the Algonquin Menominee language. In them, Bloomfield acted (simultaneously with N. S. Trubetskoy) as one of the founders of theoretical morphonology, based on language models of the element-process type (this type of model was first used in Panini’s grammar, which Bloomfield knew well and to the study of which he devoted a number of early articles).

Charles Francis Hockett(English Charles Francis Hockett, January 17, 1916, Columbus, Ohio - November 3, 2000, Ithaca, New York) - American linguist and anthropologist, professor, one of the most famous representatives of the second generation of American structuralists. Works on general phonology and morphology, methods of linguistic description, North American Indian languages, Austronesian languages, Chinese, as well as anthropology and ethnology.

Noam Chomsky - a world-famous political figure, writer and professor of linguistics at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology - author of many books and articles on linguistics, political and economic life of the modern world. Chomsky's most famous work, Syntactic Structures (1957), has had a huge influence on the development of language science throughout the world; many talk about the “Chomskyan revolution” in linguistics (a change of scientific paradigm in Kuhn’s terms). The perception of certain ideas of the theory of generative grammar (generativism) created by Chomsky is felt even in those areas of linguistics that do not accept its basic provisions and sharply criticize this theory. Over time, Chomsky’s theory evolved (so that one can speak of his theories in the plural), but its fundamental position, from which, according to the creator, all others are derived - about the innate nature of the ability to speak a language - remained unshakable. It was first expressed in Chomsky's early work, The Logical Structure of Linguistic Theory, published in 1955 (republished in 1975), in which he introduced the concept of transformational grammar. The theory considers expressions (sequences of words) that correspond to abstract “surface structures,” which in turn correspond to even more abstract “deep structures.” (In modern versions of the theory, the distinction between surface and deep structures has largely blurred.) Transformational rules, together with structural rules and principles, describe both the creation and interpretation of expressions. With a finite set of grammatical rules and concepts, people can create an unlimited number of sentences, including creating sentences that have never been expressed before. The ability to structure our expressions in this way is an innate part of the genetic program of humans. We are practically unaware of these structural principles, just as we are unaware of most of our other biological and cognitive features. Recent versions of Chomsky's theory (such as the Minimalist Agenda) make strong claims about universal grammar. According to his views, the grammatical principles underlying languages ​​are innate and unchangeable, and the differences between the world's languages ​​can be explained in terms of parametric settings of the brain, which can be compared to switches. Based on this point of view, in order to learn a language, a child only needs to learn lexical units (that is, words) and morphemes, as well as determine the necessary parameter values, which is done on the basis of several key examples. This approach, according to Chomsky, explains the amazing speed with which children learn languages, the similar stages of language learning by a child regardless of the specific language, as well as the types of characteristic errors that children who acquire their native language make, while others seem to logical mistakes don't happen. According to Chomsky, the non-occurrence or occurrence of such errors indicates the method used: general (innate) or language-specific. Chomsky's ideas have had a great influence on scientists studying language acquisition in children, although some of them disagree with these ideas, following emergenceist or connectionist theories, which are based on attempts to explain the general processes of information processing in the brain. However, almost all theories explaining the process of language acquisition are still controversial, and testing of Chomsky’s theories (as well as other theories) continues. From Chomsky's point of view, linguistics is a branch of cognitive psychology. His work "Syntactic Structures" helped establish a new connection between linguistics and cognitive psychology and formed the basis of psycholinguistics. His theory of universal grammar was seen by many as a criticism of the established theories of behaviorism at the time.

Introduction...………………………………………………………………2

Chapter 1. Life and creative activity of I.A. Baudouin de Courtenay

1.1. Kazan school and other linguistic circles………….3-4

1.2. I.A. Baudouin de Courtenay and contemporary linguistics…….4-5

1.3. Principles of judgment I.A. Baudouin de Courtenay………………..6-7

Chapter 2. Linguistic views of I.A. Baudouin de Courtenay

2.1. The concept of language and linguistic laws…………………………….8-9

2.2. The concept of phoneme…………………………………………………………….…..9-13

2.3. The doctrine of grapheme and morpheme…………………………………13-15

2.4.Syntagma. Hierarchy of linguistic units……………………….16-19

Conclusion…………………………………………………….…..20-21

List of used literature……..…………………….....22

Introduction

In the middle of the 20th century, the linguistic works of I.A. Baudouin de Courtenay began to be of considerable interest to scientists involved in linguistics. As is known, in the 20th century the problems that Baudouin de Courtenay studied at the end of the 19th and beginning of the 20th centuries, the most interesting and productive period of his creative activity, became relevant. His ideas began to actively develop in modern linguistics. Of course, his highest merit is considered to be the creation of the theory of phonemes and the founding of phonology as a new section. In addition, he was close to the problems of sciences related to linguistics, especially psychology. It is not surprising that in search of answers to questions that interested him, the scientist often went beyond the scope of linguistics. As it gradually became clear, the teachings of Baudouin de Courtenay had a strong influence not only on linguistic teaching in Poland and Russia, but also in Western Europe.

Chapter 1. Life and creative work of Baudouin de Courtenay

1.1. Kazan school and other linguistic circles.

Ivan Aleksandrovich (Jan Ignacy Necislaw) Baudouin de Courtenay was born in 1845 in Poland, where in 1866 he graduated from the department of Slavic philology of the Faculty of History and Philology of the University of Warsaw, after which he was sent abroad. He spent the years from 1868 to 1870 in St. Petersburg, where I.I. became his scientific supervisor. Sreznevsky. During the same period of his life, he received a master's degree for his work “On the Old Polish Language before the XIV Century” and was allowed to lecture on the comparative grammar of Indo-European languages. In subsequent years, Baudouin de Courtenay was a professor at several universities in Russia, but for the last few years he worked at the University of Warsaw in Poland, where he died in 1929. After numerous internships abroad, Baudouin de Courtenay called himself an “autodidact,” a scientist who came to his views and ideas independently, and not under the influence of any scientific school.

I.A. Baudouin de Courtenay was not just engaged in research and teaching activities. In different cities and countries, he organized scientific circles, where he brought together young specialists who were passionate about linguistics. The first of these schools was Kazan, which, without exaggeration, played a big role in the development of linguistics in Russia and beyond.

The most outstanding representatives of the Kazan school were V.A. Bogoroditsky, N.V. Krushevsky, S.K. Bulich, A.I. Alexandrov, V.V. Radlov. Among the Polish students are G. Ulashin, K.Yu. Appel, St. Schober, T. Benii, V. Doroshevsky.

The direction of Baudouin de Courtenay is usually called the Kazan school, regardless of where his linguistic research was conducted. The only exception is the St. Petersburg period, which entered linguistics under the name of the St. Petersburg school.

Despite the significant contribution made by the Kazan school, at that time the name of this linguistic circle as a school caused a skeptical smile among many scientists. Baudouin de Courtenay himself commented on this: “That something like this exists, there cannot be the slightest doubt. After all, there are people who declare without hesitation that they belong to the Kazan linguistic school; there are well-known methods of presentation and views on scientific issues common to all these people; Finally, there is a well-known, if not hostile, then at least unkind attitude towards the “representatives” of this school.” [Sharadzenidze 1980: 7]

1.2. I.A. Baudouin de Courtenay and contemporary linguistics.

One way or another, the works of Baudouin and the views of the Kazan school still raise many controversial issues. One of the main questions is whether Baudouin belongs to the neogrammatical movement. As is known, he was a contemporary of the Neogrammatians. A number of provisions put forward by the scientist agree with the views of malodogrammatians. But at the same time, this did not stop him from challenging many of their theories and assumptions. It is for this reason that his name is often mentioned along with those who were in opposition to the neogrammatical teaching (G. Schuchardt, O. Jespersen). However, the theory was put forward and is still supported by some scientists that Baudouin and his students belonged to the neo-grammatical movement. But then it turns out that Baudouin de Courtenay was both a supporter and an opponent of the neogrammarians.

Another such issue is the relationship between Baudouin and Krushevsky and F. Saussure. Many scholars have noticed the similarities between Saussure's "Course" and the ideas of Baudouin de Courtenay, which has caused a great deal of discussion. The question arose as to what caused these coincidences. Either this is a simple parallel development of views, or there was an influence of one scientist on another. Most researchers have spoken out in favor of Baudouin's influence on Saussure's concepts, some doing so in a rather harsh manner. The most delicate statement seems to be V.V. Vinogradova: “At present, the conviction is beginning to develop and strengthen that F. de Saussure was familiar with the works of Baudouin de Courtenay and, in presenting his “Course of General Linguistics,” was not free from the influence of Baudouin’s theories.” [Sharadzenidze 1980: 17]

The range of Baudouin de Courtenay's research was very wide. Issues of general linguistics constitute only part of his work, albeit a very extensive one. He also paid enough attention to the study of Slavic languages. Of particular interest to him was live speech. Baudouin's theory of alternation gained recognition.

Baudouin de Courtenay is recognized as one of the first phoneticians in linguistics. Thanks to his students, the first phonetic laboratories were created in St. Petersburg and Kazan.

Vocabulary also seemed to Baudouin de Courtenay to be a very interesting branch of linguistics. He revised and expanded Dahl's dictionary. Also studied social vocabulary and jargon, children's vocabulary and language pathology.

Considering the views of Baudouin de Courtenay, one may wonder whether he had a single system of views. Many of his students lament the fact that Baudouin did not create works that would fully reflect all of his linguistic views. They noted more than once that he did not create a complete theory of language, however, undoubtedly, he had his own, original point of view on the main issues of theoretical linguistics.

1.3. Principles of judgment I.A. Baudouin de Courtenay.

The judgments of Baudouin de Courtenay are based on several principles that determine the specifics of his judgments. Among these principles:

1. The desire for generalizations. Baudouin, as a thinker, was characterized by the desire for generalizations, which is a necessary condition for general linguistic research. Baudouin also propagated this principle at the Kazan school. For him, generalization did not mean a separation from linguistic material.

2. Objective language learning. The second principle that Baudouin followed is the requirement for an objective study of language. It follows from the general methodological position that science must consider its subject in itself, as it is, without imposing foreign categories on it.

3. Linguistic flair. Baudouin himself wrote about this: “I believe that every subject must first of all be examined in itself, isolating from it only those parts that actually exist in it, and not imposing on it from the outside categories alien to it. In the field of language, the objective guide for such scientific operations should be the sense of language and, in general, its mental side. I refer to the sense of language because for me it is not some kind of invention, not some kind of subjective self-deception, but a real and completely objective fact.”

4. Criticism of traditional grammars. Baudouin's works provide a critical analysis of traditional philological grammars. He opposes the fact that they contain a mixture of oral and written speech, as well as letters and sounds.

5. On the importance of studying living languages. Baudouin de Courtenay wrote: “For linguistics...much more important is the study of the living, i.e. now existing languages, rather than languages ​​that have disappeared and are reproduced only from written monuments...Only a linguist who has thoroughly studied a living language can allow himself to make an assumption about the characteristics of the languages ​​of the dead. The study of the languages ​​of the living must precede the study of the languages ​​of the extinct." [Sharadzenidze 1980: 23]. By studying living languages, Baudouin means studying not only territorial dialects, but also social ones, that is, the speech of all layers of society, including the language of street boys, traders, hunters, etc.

Introduction

I.A. Baudouin de Courtenay was one of the most influential linguists in Russia in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Many of his ideas were deeply innovative and significantly ahead of their time; A very common view of him is as a kind of “East European Saussure”, which was facilitated by his role in the creation of phonology - one of the most “structuralist” sections of the science of language. Baudouin's ideas are scattered across numerous small articles touching on various problems of linguistics, primarily general linguistics and Slavic studies; It should be noted that the popularization of these ideas was greatly facilitated by the activities of such scientists as R.O. Yakobson, N.S. Trubetskoy, E. Kurilovich.

Recently, interest in the scientific works of this linguist has again increased in the scientific world, which is associated with the appearance of new articles and monographs based on his teachings. In this regard, the relevance of this work is determined, which lies in the need to study the scientific activity of Baudouin de Courtenay, who made a huge contribution to the development of domestic and world linguistics. The purpose of this work is to familiarize yourself with the researcher’s teachings. The objectives of this work are: a brief introduction to the biography of the scientist and a detailed examination of his works on the phoneme.

Biography of I.A. Baudouin de Courtenay

Ivan Aleksandrovich Baudouin de Courtenay (1845-1929) lived a long and varied life. He came from an old French family that became famous during the Crusades, but his ancestors moved to Poland and he himself, of course, was a Pole, and at the same time he had to write in three languages ​​at different periods of his activity: Russian, Polish and German. He received his higher education in Warsaw, and then trained abroad for several years - in Prague, Vienna, Berlin, Leipzig, and listened to lectures by A. Schleicher. He himself subsequently considered himself a scientist who did not come from any scientific school, who came to his theoretical ideas on his own. At the age of 29, he defended his description of phonetics as a doctoral dissertation at St. Petersburg University. The first works of I. A. Baudouin de Courtenay were devoted to Slavic studies, but already during this period he was engaged in general linguistics. This issue occupied an even greater place in Kazan, where he began working in 1874 as an assistant professor, then a professor, and taught a variety of courses. There he created the Kazan school, to which, in addition to N.V. Krushevsky, belonged a prominent Russianist and Turkologist, one of the first experimental phoneticists in Russia, corresponding member of the USSR Academy of Sciences Vasily Alekseevich Bogoroditsky (1857-1941), who lived his whole life in Kazan. In 1883--1893. I. A. Baudouin de Courtenay worked in Yuryev (now Tartu), it was there that his concepts of phoneme and morpheme were finally formed. Then he taught in Krakow, then part of Austria-Hungary, and in 1900 he became a professor at St. Petersburg University. Since 1897 he was a corresponding member of the Russian Academy of Sciences. In St. Petersburg, the scientist also created a scientific school, his students were L. V. Shcherba and E. D. Polivanov, whose ideas will be discussed in the chapter on Soviet linguistics. I. A. Baudouin de Courtenay actively defended the rights of the small peoples of Russia and their languages, for which in 1914 he was imprisoned for several months. After the re-establishment of Poland as an independent state, he left for his homeland in 1918, where he spent the last years of his life.

I. A. Baudouin de Courtenay had almost no large-scale works. His legacy is dominated by relatively short articles, but distinguished by the clarity of their tasks and problematic nature. Most of the most important and interesting of them were included in the two-volume book “Selected Works on General Linguistics” published in Moscow in 1963.