I think history buffs will find it interesting to read a brief illustrated history of one of the greatest European dynasties, which had a huge impact on shaping the modern world, HABSBURG .

Habsburg family coat of arms:

The origins of the Habsburgs are not precisely known. A number of historians claim that they descended from the French Carolingians. The first Count of Habsburg at the beginning of the 11th century was Radbot . The family name comes from the name of the family house he built Habichtsburg Castle (Falcon's Nest).

This castle was located on the Aar (or Are) River in the territory of modern Switzerland. Little remains of the medieval castle today. Now it looks like this:

The Habsburgs gained real power in 1273, when, by order of Pope Gregory X Count Rudolf of Habsburg became the de facto Emperor of the Holy Roman Empire (although he never received this title, being called the King of Germany).
The Pope needed money and Rudolf's support to carry out a new crusade. And although the rulers of other European states did not show much enthusiasm for this, Rudolf I was a decisive man, he used his wealth and influence to expand the borders of his possessions and annex to them a number of vassal lands in relation to him as the German Emperor (Kyburg, Swabia, Austria and the adjacent duchies).

Rudolf I
(19th century sculpture in Speyer Cathedral):

And this is the Speyer Cathedral itself - the largest surviving building of the Romanesque style (XI century),
in the crypt of which Rudolf I of Habsburg was buried in 1291:

The political system of Europe was still in the process of formation. Rudolf I took an unusual step for that time - he made all feudal lands hereditary, and he declared Austria and Styria, captured by him during the fight with the Czech king Přemysl Otakar II, as the dynastic possession of his family, thus forming Austrian Habsburg Monarchy , which existed until 1918.

One of the most prominent representatives of the Habsburgs was the King of Germany and Holy Roman Emperor Maximilian I (1459 - 1519) .

Portrait of Maximilian I by Albrecht Dürer (1519):

This Habsburg began to conduct a successful dynastic marriage policy , thanks to which the influence of the dynasty increased even more. He himself married a representative of the Burgundian family, Maria, daughter of Duke Charles the Bold, as a result of which he annexed to the empire not only Burgundy, but also Luxembourg, Brabant, Limburg, Flanders, Boulogne, Picardy, Holland, Zealand, Friesland, etc. (however, I had to fight with France for these lands and not always successfully).

Portrait of Maximilian I by Rubens (1518):

Coat of arms of Maximilian I
(on the shield are the emblems of Austria and Burgundy):

Own son Philippa (1478 - 1506) Maximilian married Infanta Joanna (Juan the Mad), inheriting Castile and Aragon, which was the first step towards turning Spain into the possession of the Habsburgs.

Portrait of Maximilian I and his family
(Bernhard Striegel, after 1515):

The Habsburgs reached their greatest greatness during the reign of the grandson of Maximilian I - Charles V (1500 - 1558) .

Portrait of the young Charles V by Bernaert van Orley (c. 1516):

Under Charles V, Silly and Milan entered the Habsburg sphere of influence, followed by entire states such as Spain and the Netherlands (along with all their overseas colonies). It was then that they began to say about the Habsburg Empire that it was over "the sun never sets" .

Portrait of Charles V by Titian (c. 1550):

Coat of arms of Charles V of Habsburg:

In 1556, Charles V abdicated the throne (tired, disillusioned with his unrealizable plans to make all of Western Europe a single state), which led to the division of his vast empire.

The main western territories (Spain with its overseas colonies and possessions in Italy, as well as the Netherlands) went to his son Philip II (1527 - 1598) , and the eastern ones (Austria, Hungary and Bohemia) - went to his brother Ferdinand (1503 - 1564) .

Since then, with the exception of a few occasional takeoffs, The Habsburg Empire began to fade .
And one of the main reasons for this was probably Charles V .

In 1526 he married the beautiful Isabella of Portugal (1503 - 1539) , who bore him five children, including the future Spanish king Philip II .

Portrait of Isabella of Portugal
works by Titian (1548):

But the whole point is that she was Karl’s cousin. This closely related marriage most likely served as one of the main reasons for the degeneration of the Spanish branch of the Habsburg dynasty.

Charles V and his son Philip II
(Antonio Arias Fernandez, mid-17th century):

And if in the Spanish king Philip II himself the signs of degeneration had not yet fully manifested themselves (at least his policy was quite conscious), then in his descendants the results of incestuous marriages became completely obvious, which was facilitated by the Spanish king himself, who preferred to marry exclusively close ones relatives.

So, first wife Philip II became Maria of Portugal - his cousin (both on his father’s and mother’s side), who gave birth to the monarch’s heir, named Carlos , and died immediately after giving birth. But this heir turned out to be inferior both physically and mentally.

Portrait of the heir of Philip II - Don Carlos
(Alonso Sanchez Coelho, 1558):

In 1568, Don Carlos was arrested personally by his father and placed in solitary confinement. Madrid Alcazar , where he died under unclear circumstances six months later (either he was poisoned on the orders of his father, or died from natural causes).

The Alcazar in Madrid has not survived to this day,
it burned down in 1734 (the Royal Palace is now located in its place),
but, fortunately, we can see what he looked like thanks to contemporary artists:

Second wife Philip II became Queen of England Mary I Tudor , who was his father’s cousin, that is, his aunt (and she was 12 years older than her husband).

Portrait of Mary Tudor by Anthony Mare (1554):

There were no children from this marriage, but even if they were born, they would become heirs not to the Spanish, but to the English throne.

Third wife Philip II French princess Elizabeth Valois as an exception, apparently, she was not his close relative. She bore the king six children, but the boys who could have become heirs to the throne, alas, did not survive, dying immediately after birth. She never left an heir, dying in 1568.

Portrait of Elizabeth of Valois
works by Juan Pantoja de la Cruz (1560):

Nevertheless, Philip II did not give up hope of giving birth to an heir and married for the fourth time . And again his chosen one was a close relative - his own maternal niece and the daughter of his paternal cousin - Anna of Austria.

Portrait of Anne of Austria by Giuseppe Arcimbolde (c. 1563):

An heir did emerge from this marriage. He became the king Philip III (1578 - 1627) , who became the first of the incompetent kings of Spain who brought the country to internal decline and foreign policy impotence.

Portrait of Philip III by Franz Purbus the Younger:

Is it any wonder that did the Spanish branch of the Habsburg dynasty end in 1700?
Started in connection with this War of the Spanish Succession ( 1701 - 1714) led to the Spanish throne Bourbons .

Lasted a little longer Austrian branch of the Habsburgs .

But more about this in next part... (See by tag "Habsburgs" ).

So, to be continued...
Sergey Vorobiev.

HABSBURGS. Part 1. Austrian branch of the Habsburgs

Emperors who made elective office hereditary.

The Habsburgs were a dynasty that ruled the Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation (until 1806), Spain (1516-1700), the Austrian Empire (formally from 1804), and Austria-Hungary (1867-1918).

The Habsburgs were one of the richest and most influential families in Europe. A distinctive feature of the Habsburgs' appearance was their prominent, slightly drooping lower lip.

Charles II of Habsburg

The family castle of an ancient family, built at the beginning of the 11th century, was called Habsburg (from Habichtsburg - Hawk's Nest). The dynasty received its name from him.

Castle Hawk's Nest, Switzerland

The Habsburg family castle - Schönbrunn - is located near Vienna. It is a modernized copy of Louis XIV's Versailles and is where much of the Habsburg family and political life took place.

Habsburg Summer Castle - Schönbrunn, Austria

And the main residence of the Habsburgs in Vienna was the Hofburg (Burg) palace complex.

Habsburg Winter Castle - Hofburg, Austria

In 1247, Count Rudolf of Habsburg was elected king of Germany, marking the beginning of a royal dynasty. Rudolf I annexed the lands of Bohemia and Austria to his possessions, which became the center of the dominion. The first emperor from the ruling Habsburg dynasty was Rudolf I (1218-1291), German king since 1273. During his reign in 1273-1291, he took Austria, Styria, Carinthia and Carniola from the Czech Republic, which became the main core of the Habsburg possessions.

Rudolf I of Habsburg (1273-1291)

Rudolf I was succeeded by his eldest son Albrecht I, who was elected king in 1298.

Albrecht I of Habsburg

Then, for almost a hundred years, representatives of other families occupied the German throne, until Albrecht II was elected king in 1438. Since then, representatives of the Habsburg dynasty have been constantly (with the exception of a single break in 1742-1745) elected kings of Germany and emperors of the Holy Roman Empire. The only attempt in 1742 to elect another candidate, the Bavarian Wittelsbach, led to civil war.

Albrecht II of Habsburg

The Habsburgs received the imperial throne at a time when only a very strong dynasty could hold onto it. Through the efforts of the Habsburgs - Frederick III, his son Maximilian I and great-grandson Charles V - the highest prestige of the imperial title was restored, and the idea of ​​empire itself received new content.

Frederick III of Habsburg

Maximilian I (emperor from 1493 to 1519) annexed the Netherlands to the Austrian possessions. In 1477, by marrying Mary of Burgundy, he added to the Habsburg domains Franche-Comté, a historical province in eastern France. He married his son Charles to the daughter of the Spanish king, and thanks to the successful marriage of his grandson, he received the rights to the Czech throne.

Emperor Maximilian I. Portrait by Albrecht Durer (1519)

Bernhard Striegel. Portrait of Emperor Maximilian I and his family

Bernart van Orley. Young Charles V, son of Maximilian I. Louvre

Maximilian I. Portrait by Rubens, 1618

After the death of Maximilian I, three powerful kings claimed the imperial crown of the Holy Roman Empire - Charles V of Spain himself, Francis I of France and Henry VIII of England. But Henry VIII quickly abandoned the crown, and Charles and Francis continued this struggle with each other almost all their lives.

In the struggle for power, Charles used the silver of his colonies in Mexico and Peru and money borrowed from the richest bankers of that time to bribe the electors, giving them Spanish mines in return. And the electors elected the heir of the Habsburgs to the imperial throne. Everyone hoped that he would be able to withstand the onslaught of the Turks and protect Europe from their invasion with the help of the fleet. The new emperor was forced to accept conditions according to which only Germans could hold public positions in the empire, the German language was to be used on an equal basis with Latin, and all meetings of government officials were to be held only with the participation of the electors.

Charles V of Habsburg

Titian, Portrait of Charles V with his Dog, 1532-33. Oil on canvas, Prado Museum, Madrid

Titian, Portrait of Charles V in an Armchair, 1548

Titian, Emperor Charles V at the Battle of Mühlberg

So Charles V became the ruler of a huge empire, which included Austria, Germany, the Netherlands, Southern Italy, Sicily, Sardinia, Spain and the Spanish colonies in America - Mexico and Peru. The “world power” under his rule was so great that “the sun never set” on it.

Even his military victories did not bring the desired success to Charles V. He declared the goal of his policy to be the creation of a “worldwide Christian monarchy.” But internal strife between Catholics and Protestants destroyed the empire, the greatness and unity of which he dreamed of. During his reign, the Peasants' War of 1525 broke out in Germany, the Reformation took place, and the Comuneros uprising took place in Spain in 1520-1522.

The collapse of the political program forced the emperor to eventually sign the Religious Peace of Augsburg, and now each elector within his principality could adhere to the faith that he liked best - Catholic or Protestant, that is, the principle “whose power, whose faith” was proclaimed. In 1556, he sent a message to the electors renouncing the imperial crown, which he ceded to his brother Ferdinand I (1556-64), who had been elected king of Rome in 1531. In the same year, Charles V abdicated the Spanish throne in favor of his son Philip II and retired to a monastery, where he died two years later.

Emperor Ferdinand I of Habsburg in a portrait by Boxberger

Philip II of Habsburg in ceremonial armor

Austrian branch of the Habsburgs

Castile in 1520-1522 against absolutism. At the Battle of Villalar (1521), the rebels were defeated and ceased resistance in 1522. Government repression continued until 1526. Ferdinand I managed to secure for the Habsburgs the right of ownership of the lands of the crown of St. Wenceslas and St. Stephen, which significantly increased the possessions and prestige of the Habsburgs. He was tolerant of both Catholics and Protestants, as a result of which the great empire actually disintegrated into separate states.

Already during his lifetime, Ferdinand I ensured continuity by holding the election of the Roman king in 1562, which was won by his son Maximilian II. He was an educated man with gallant manners and deep knowledge of modern culture and art.

Maximilian II of Habsburg

Giuseppe Arcimboldo. Portrait of Maximilian II with his family, c. 1563

Maximilian II evokes very contradictory assessments by historians: he is both a “mysterious emperor,” and a “tolerant emperor,” and “a representative of humanistic Christianity of the Erasmus tradition,” but recently he is most often called the “emperor of the religious world.” Maximilian II of Habsburg continued the policies of his father, who sought to find compromises with opposition-minded subjects of the empire. This position provided the emperor with extraordinary popularity in the empire, which contributed to the unhindered election of his son, Rudolf II, as the Roman king and then emperor.

Rudolf II of Habsburg

Rudolf II of Habsburg

Rudolf II was brought up at the Spanish court, had a deep mind, strong will and intuition, was far-sighted and prudent, but for all that he was timid and prone to depression. In 1578 and 1581 he suffered serious illnesses, after which he stopped appearing at hunts, tournaments and festivals. Over time, suspicion developed in him, and he began to fear witchcraft and poisoning, sometimes he thought about suicide, and in recent years he sought oblivion in drunkenness.

Historians believe that the cause of his mental illness was his bachelor life, but this is not entirely true: the emperor had a family, but not one consecrated by marriage. He had a long relationship with the daughter of the antiquarian Jacopo de la Strada, Maria, and they had six children.

The emperor's favorite son, Don Julius Caesar of Austria, was mentally ill, committed a brutal murder and died in custody.

Rudolf II of Habsburg was an extremely versatile person: he loved Latin poetry, history, devoted a lot of time to mathematics, physics, astronomy, and was interested in occult sciences (there is a legend that Rudolf had contacts with Rabbi Lev, who allegedly created the “Golem”, an artificial man) . During his reign, mineralogy, metallurgy, zoology, botany and geography received significant development.

Rudolf II was the largest collector in Europe. His passion was the works of Durer, Pieter Bruegel the Elder. He was also known as a watch collector. His encouragement of jewelry culminated in the creation of the magnificent Imperial Crown, the symbol of the Austrian Empire.

Personal crown of Rudolf II, later crown of the Austrian Empire

He proved himself to be a talented commander (in the war with the Turks), but was unable to take advantage of the fruits of this victory; the war became protracted. This sparked a rebellion in 1604, and in 1608 the emperor abdicated in favor of his brother Matthias. It must be said that Rudolf II resisted this turn of affairs for a long time and extended the transfer of powers to the heir for several years. This situation tired both the heir and the population. Therefore, everyone breathed a sigh of relief when Rudolf II died of dropsy on January 20, 1612.

Matthias Habsburg

Matthias received only the appearance of power and influence. The finances in the state were completely upset, the foreign policy situation was steadily leading to a big war, domestic politics threatened another uprising, and the victory of the irreconcilable Catholic party, at the origins of which Matthias stood, actually led to his overthrow.

This sad inheritance went to Ferdinand of Central Austria, who was elected Roman Emperor in 1619. He was a friendly and generous gentleman to his subjects and a very happy husband (in both of his marriages).

Ferdinand II of Habsburg

Ferdinand II loved music and adored hunting, but work came first for him. He was deeply religious. During his reign, he successfully overcame a number of difficult crises, he managed to unite the politically and religiously divided possessions of the Habsburgs and began a similar unification in the empire, which was to be completed by his son, Emperor Ferdinand III.

Ferdinand III of Habsburg

The most important political event of the reign of Ferdinand III is the Peace of Westphalia, with the conclusion of which the Thirty Years' War ended, which began as an uprising against Matthias, continued under Ferdinand II and was stopped by Ferdinand III. By the time peace was signed, 4/5 of all war resources were in the hands of the emperor’s opponents, and the last parts of the imperial army capable of maneuvering were defeated. In this situation, Ferdinand III proved himself to be a strong politician, capable of making decisions independently and consistently implementing them. Despite all the defeats, the emperor perceived the Peace of Westphalia as a success that prevented even more serious consequences. But the treaty, signed under pressure from the electors, which brought peace to the empire, simultaneously undermined the authority of the emperor.

The prestige of the emperor's power had to be restored by Leopold I, who was elected in 1658 and ruled for 47 years after that. He managed to successfully play the role of the emperor as a defender of law and law, restoring the authority of the emperor step by step. He worked long and hard, traveling outside the empire only when necessary, and made sure that strong personalities did not occupy a dominant position for a long time.

Leopold I of Habsburg

The alliance with the Netherlands concluded in 1673 allowed Leopold I to strengthen the foundations for Austria's future position as a great European power and achieve its recognition among the electors - subjects of the empire. Austria again became the center around which the empire was defined.

Under Leopold, Germany experienced a revival of Austrian and Habsburg hegemony in the empire, the birth of the "Viennese Imperial Baroque". The emperor himself was known as a composer.

Leopold I of Hasburg was succeeded by Emperor Joseph I of Habsburg. The beginning of his reign was brilliant, and a great future was predicted for the emperor, but his undertakings were not completed. Soon after his election, it became clear that he preferred hunting and amorous adventures to serious work. His affairs with court ladies and chambermaids caused a lot of trouble for his respectable parents. Even the attempt to marry Joseph was unsuccessful, because the wife could not find the strength to tie her irrepressible hubby.

Joseph I of Habsburg

Joseph died of smallpox in 1711, remaining in history as a symbol of hope that was not destined to come true.

Charles VI became the Roman emperor, who had previously tried his hand as King Charles III of Spain, but was not recognized by the Spaniards and was not supported by other rulers. He managed to maintain peace in the empire without losing the authority of the emperor.

Charles VI of Habsburg, last of the Habsburgs in the male line

However, he was unable to ensure the continuity of the dynasty, since there was no son among his children (he died in infancy). Therefore, Charles took care to regulate the order of inheritance. A document known as the Pragmatic Sanction was adopted, according to which, after the complete extinction of the ruling branch, the right of succession was first given to the daughters of his brother, and then to his sisters. This document contributed greatly to the rise of his daughter Maria Theresa, who ruled the empire first with her husband, Franz I, and then with her son, Joseph II.

Maria Theresa at age 11

But in history, not everything was so smooth: with the death of Charles VI, the male line of the Habsburgs was interrupted, and Charles VII from the Wittelsbach dynasty was elected emperor, which forced the Habsburgs to remember that the empire is an elective monarchy and its governance is not associated with a single dynasty.

Portrait of Maria Theresa

Maria Theresa made attempts to return the crown to her family, which she succeeded after the death of Charles VII - her husband, Franz I, became emperor. However, in fairness, it should be noted that Franz was not an independent politician, because all affairs in the empire were taken into his hands tireless wife. Maria Theresa and Franz were happily married (despite Franz's numerous infidelities, which his wife preferred not to notice), and God blessed them with numerous offspring: 16 children. Surprisingly, but true: the empress even gave birth as if casually: she worked with documents until the doctors sent her to the maternity room, and immediately after giving birth she continued to sign documents and only after that could she afford to rest. She entrusted the care of raising her children to trusted persons, strictly supervising them. Her interest in the destinies of her children truly manifested itself only when the time came to think about the arrangement of their marriages. And here Maria Theresa showed truly remarkable abilities. She arranged the weddings of her daughters: Maria Caroline married the King of Naples, Maria Amelia married the Infante of Parma, and Marie Antoinette, married to the Dauphin of France Louis (XVI), became the last queen of France.

Maria Theresa, who pushed her husband into the shadow of big politics, did the same with her son, which is why their relationship was always tense. As a result of these skirmishes, Joseph chose to travel.

Francis I Stephen, Francis I of Lorraine

During his trips he visited Switzerland, France, and Russia. Traveling not only expanded the circle of his personal acquaintances, but also increased his popularity among his subjects.

After the death of Maria Theresa in 1780, Joseph was finally able to carry out the reforms that he had thought about and prepared during his mother’s time. This program was born, carried out and died with him. Joseph was alien to dynastic thinking; he sought to expand the territory and pursue the Austrian great-power policy. This policy turned almost the entire empire against him. Nevertheless, Joseph still managed to achieve some results: in 10 years he changed the face of the empire so much that only his descendants were able to truly appreciate his work.

Joseph II, eldest son of Maria Theresa

It was clear to the new monarch, Leopold II, that the empire would only be saved by concessions and a slow return to the past, but while his goals were clear, he had no clarity in actually achieving them, and, as it turned out later, he also did not have time, because the emperor died 2 years after election.

Leopold II, third son of Franz I and Maria Theresa

Francis II reigned for over 40 years, under him the Austrian Empire was formed, under him the final collapse of the Roman Empire was recorded, under him Chancellor Metternich ruled, after whom an entire era was named. But the emperor himself, in historical light, appears as a shadow bending over state papers, a vague and amorphous shadow, incapable of independent body movements.

Franz II with the scepter and crown of the new Austrian Empire. Portrait by Friedrich von Amerling. 1832. Museum of Art History. Vein

At the beginning of his reign, Franz II was a very active politician: he carried out management reforms, mercilessly changed officials, experimented in politics, and his experiments simply took the breath away of many. It was later that he would become a conservative, suspicious and unsure of himself, unable to make global decisions...

Francis II assumed the title of Hereditary Emperor of Austria in 1804, which was associated with the proclamation of Napoleon as Hereditary Emperor of the French. And by 1806, circumstances were such that the Roman Empire had become a ghost. If in 1803 there were still some remnants of imperial consciousness, now they were not even remembered. Having soberly assessed the situation, Francis II decided to relinquish the crown of the Holy Roman Empire and from that moment devoted himself entirely to strengthening Austria.

In his memoirs, Metternich wrote about this turn of history: “Franz, deprived of the title and the rights that he had before 1806, but incomparably more powerful than then, was now the true emperor of Germany.”

Ferdinand I of Austria "The Good" modestly ranks between his predecessor and his successor Franz Joseph I.

Ferdinand I of Austria "The Good"

Ferdinand I was very popular among the people, as evidenced by numerous anecdotes. He was a supporter of innovations in many areas: from the construction of the railroad to the first long-distance telegraph line. By decision of the emperor, the Military Geographical Institute was created and the Austrian Academy of Sciences was founded.

The emperor was sick with epilepsy, and the disease left its mark on the attitude towards him. He was called “blessed”, “fool”, “stupid”, etc. Despite all these unflattering epithets, Ferdinand I showed various abilities: he knew five languages, played the piano, and was fond of botany. In the matter of government, he also achieved certain successes. Thus, during the revolution of 1848, it was he who realized that Metternich’s system, which had worked successfully for many years, had outlived its usefulness and required replacement. And Ferdinand Joseph had the firmness to refuse the services of the chancellor.

During the difficult days of 1848, the Emperor tried to resist circumstances and pressure from others, but he was eventually forced to abdicate, followed by Archduke Franz Karl. Franz Joseph, the son of Franz Karl, who ruled Austria (and then Austria-Hungary) for no less than 68 years, became emperor. The first years the emperor ruled under the influence, if not under the leadership, of his mother, Empress Sophia.

Franz Joseph in 1853. Portrait by Miklós Barabás

Franz Joseph I of Austria

For Franz Joseph I of Austria, the most important things in the world were: dynasty, army and religion. At first, the young emperor zealously took up the matter. Already in 1851, after the defeat of the revolution, the absolutist regime in Austria was restored.

In 1867, Franz Joseph transformed the Austrian Empire into the dual monarchy of Austria-Hungary, in other words, he made a constitutional compromise that retained for the emperor all the advantages of an absolute monarch, but at the same time left all the problems of the state system unresolved.

The policy of coexistence and cooperation between the peoples of Central Europe is the Habsburg tradition. It was a conglomerate of peoples, essentially equal, because everyone, be it a Hungarian or a Bohemian, a Czech or a Bosnian, could occupy any government post. They ruled in the name of the law and did not take into account the national origin of their subjects. For nationalists, Austria was a “prison of nations,” but, oddly enough, the people in this “prison” grew rich and prospered. Thus, the House of Habsburg really assessed the benefits of having a large Jewish community on the territory of Austria and invariably defended the Jews from the attacks of Christian communities - so much so that anti-Semites even nicknamed Franz Joseph the “Jewish Emperor.”

Franz Joseph loved his charming wife, but on occasion he could not resist the temptation to admire the beauty of other women, who usually reciprocated his feelings. He also could not resist gambling, often visiting the Monte Carlo casino. Like all Habsburgs, the emperor under no circumstances misses the hunt, which has a pacifying effect on him.

The Habsburg monarchy was swept away by the whirlwind of revolution in October 1918. The last representative of this dynasty, Charles I of Austria, was overthrown after being in power for only about two years, and all the Habsburgs were expelled from the country.

Charles I of Austria

The last representative of the Habsburg dynasty in Austria - Charles I of Austria and his wife

There was an ancient legend in the Habsburg family: the proud family would begin with Rudolf and end with Rudolf. The prediction almost came true, for the dynasty fell after the death of Crown Prince Rudolf, the only son of Franz Joseph I of Austria. And if the dynasty remained on the throne after his death for another 27 years, then for a prediction made many centuries ago, this is a minor error.

Coat of arms of the Counts of Habsburg

In a golden field is a scarlet lion, armed and crowned with azure.

Habsburgs

The Habsburgs were one of the most powerful royal dynasties in Europe during the Middle Ages and Modern times.

The ancestor of the Habsburgs was Count Guntram the Rich, whose domains lay in Northern Switzerland and Alsace. His grandson Radboth built the Habsburg castle near the Are River, which gave the name to the dynasty. The name of the castle, according to legend, was originally Habichtsburg ( Habichtsburg), "Hawk Castle", in honor of the hawk that landed on the newly built walls of the fortress. According to another version, the name comes from Old German hab- ford: the fortress was supposed to guard the crossing of the Are River. (The castle was lost to the Habsburgs in the 15th century; the territory in which it was located became part of the Swiss Confederation). Radbot's descendants annexed a number of possessions in Alsace (Sundgau) and most of northern Switzerland to their possessions, becoming by the mid-13th century one of the largest feudal families in the southwestern outskirts of Germany. The first hereditary title of the family was the title of Count of Habsburg.

Albrecht IV and Rudolf III (descendants of Radboth in the sixth generation) divided the family domains: the first received the western part, including Aargau and Sundgau, and the second lands in eastern Switzerland. The descendants of Albrecht IV were considered the main line, and the heirs of Rudolf III began to be called the title Count of Habsburg-Laufenburg. Representatives of the Laufenburg line did not play a significant role in German politics and remained, like many other German aristocratic families, a regional feudal house. Their possessions included the eastern part of Aargau, Thurgau, Klettgau, Kyburg and a number of fiefs in Burgundy. This line ended in 1460.

The entry of the Habsburgs into the European arena is associated with the name of the son of Count Albrecht IV (1218-1291). He annexed the vast principality of Kyburg to the Habsburg possessions, and in 1273 he was elected king of Germany by the German princes under the name. Having become king, he tried to strengthen central power in the Holy Roman Empire, but his main success was the victory over the Czech king in 1278, as a result of which the duchies of Austria and Styria came under control.

In 1282, the king transferred these possessions to his children and. Thus, the Habsburgs became rulers of a vast and rich Danube state, which quickly eclipsed their ancestral domains in Switzerland, Swabia and Alsace.

The new monarch was unable to get along with the Protestants, whose rebellion resulted in the Thirty Years' War, which radically changed the balance of power in Europe. The fighting ended with the Peace of Westphalia (1648), which strengthened the position and hurt the interests of the Habsburgs (in particular, they lost all their possessions in Alsace).

In 1659, the French king dealt a new blow to the prestige of the Habsburgs - the Peace of the Pyrenees left the western part of the Spanish Netherlands, including the County of Artois, for the French. By this time it became obvious that they had won the confrontation with the Habsburgs for supremacy in Europe.

In the 19th century, the House of Habsburg-Lorraine split into the following branches:

• Imperial- all the descendants of the first Austrian emperor belong to it. Its representatives returned to Russia after World War II, abandoning the noble prefix "von". This branch is now headed by Charles of Habsburg-Lorraine, grandson of the last Austrian Emperor.
• Tuscan- descendants of the brother who received Tuscany in exchange for the lost Lorraine. After the Risorgimento, the Tuscan Habsburgs returned to Vienna. Now it is the most numerous of the Habsburg branches.
• Teshenskaya- descendants of Karl Ludwig, younger brother. Now this branch is represented by several lines.
• Hungarian- she is represented by her childless brother, Joseph, Palatine of Hungary.
• Modena(Austrian Este) - descendants of Ferdinand Charles, the sixth son of the Emperor. This branch was stopped in 1876. In 1875, the title of Duke of Este was transferred to Franz Ferdinand, and after his assassination in 1914 in Sarajevo - to Robert, the second son, and on his mother's side, a descendant of the original Modena Estes. The current head of this line, Karl Otto Lorenz, is married to the Belgian Princess Astrid and lives in Belgium.

In addition to the five main ones, there are two morganatic branches of the Habsburgs:

• Hohenbergs- descendants of the unequal marriage of Archduke Franz Ferdinand with Sophia Chotek. The Hohenbergs, although they are the eldest among the living Habsburgs, do not claim primacy in the dynasty. This branch is now headed by Georg Hohenberg, Knight of the Order of the Golden Fleece, former Austrian ambassador to the Vatican.
• Merans- descendants from the marriage of Johann Baptist, the youngest son, with the daughter of the postmaster, Anna Plöchl.

Representatives of the Habsburg dynasty

King of Germany, Duke of Austria and Styria
, Duke of Austria, Styria and Carinthia
, King of Germany, King of Hungary (Albert), King of Bohemia (Albrecht), Duke of Austria (Albrecht V)
, Duke of Austria, Styria and Carinthia, Count of Tyrol
, Duke of Austria
, Archduke of Austria
, Duke of Western Austria, Styria, Carinthia and Carniola, Count of Tyrol

, Duke of Swabia
, Holy Roman Emperor, King of Germany, Bohemia, Hungary, Archduke of Austria
, Emperor of Austria, King of the Czech Republic (Charles III), King of Hungary (Charles IV)
, King of Spain
, Holy Roman Emperor, King of Germany, King of Spain (Aragon, Leon, Castile, Valencia), Count of Barcelona (Charles I), King of Sicily (Charles II), Duke of Brabant (Charles), Count of Holland (Charles II), Archduke of Austria (Charles I)

Preface

The Thirty Years' War and the Great Peace that ended it (1648) became the most important stage in the rise of the Gab di-nasty -s-burgs and transformation of Av-s-t-ria into a great country. As a result of this war and the defeat of the Czech troops in the battle of the White Mountain (1620), the lands of the Czech regions (Czech Republic, Mora-via, Si-le-zia) were windows-cha-tel-but-joined to “us-ice-with-t-ven” -nom vla-de-ni-yam" Gab-s-bur-gov, i.e. to own-s-t-ven-but Av-s-t-rii. Some kind of di-nas-tia has won the window-cha-tel-nu-du over its pro-tes-tan-t-s-ki-mi given by us. Many pro-tes-tan-you nobles and towns, merchants and craftsmen have lost their property -va and would-be from-on-us.

One of the main historical events after the Ice War and the Weight of the World was the decline of the Holy of the -noy Rome-with-empire of the German-with-nation and its transformation into an amor-f-union of several so-ten su- ver-ren-nyh germ-man-s-kih go-su-dar-s-tv-mo-nar-hiy. Germany is ready to be a great country. From Sweden and France, from the world and from Germany, Is it right to po-yang-but to interfere in German affairs. The even-even ti-tul im-per-ra-to-ditch of the Holy Rome-with-which-em-peri-re-found in such a way purely no- minimal meaning. The age-old struggle for ge-ge-mo-nia in Germany between Gab-s-bur-ga-mi and France was outlined.

Austria after the Peace of Westphalia.

Emperor Leopold I (1658-1705) began to create his own empire around Austria on the basis of “us” ice-with-t-vein-powers,” trying to transform it into a great European country. For this purpose, he introduced a unified tax system for all of his dominions and established a central ve-dom. -t-in for the rule of them, under-the-ru-vaya power of local fe-dal estates. At the very height of these reforms, a terrible threat of Os-man’s invasion once again hung over Av-s-t-ri-it. In the second half of the 17th century. the sys-te-ma-ti-ches-kie-kho-dy arm-mi sul-ta-na against Ve-ne-tion, Poland, Russia. The first av-s-t-ro-Turkish war began in 1660. The army of the sul-ta-na, having defeated the army of the prince Trans-sil-va-nii, in those days a hundred years after the race of Ven-g-ria, which was the main support on-tsi-onal-noy ven-ger-s-koy go-su-dar-s-t-ven-nos-ti and hearth of ven-ger-s-koy kul-tu-ry, approx. -li-zi-li-to the borders of Av-s-t-riya. Av-s-t-ri-tsy, under-country warriors of the Ven-ger-s-kih fe-odal-lovs, you-played this war, just like the re- -sha-y battle near Saint-Go-tar-da. One-on-ko, vop-re-ki expect-da-ni-yam and lo-gi-ke, fel-d-mar-shal Mont-te-kuk-ko-li did not press-le-do-vat na-go-lo-vu once-bi-go and demon-by-a-number-of-daughters-but-from-the-fall-she-against-none. Le-opold pos-sailed quickly to conclude your var-s-kiy peace (1664), which was in the hands of the os-ma-news all their za-vo-eva-niya.

Hungary as part of the Habsburg Empire.

The Emperor did not take advantage of the fruit of this large military force because at that time he was -shal complex and important trial-le-mu zak-re-le-niya and fact-ti-ches-to-join-to-gab-s-bur-g-s -kim vla-de-ni-yam to the west and se-ve-ro-behind the western part of Ko-ro-lion-from-t-va Ven-g-riya. Ven-ger-s-kaya ko-ro-na (ko-ro-to St. Ish-t-va-na, the first king of Ven-g-ri) went to Gab -from-bur-gam by marriage con-t-rak back in 1526. One-on-the-central part of the country was za-nya-ta- ma-na-mi, in the east in ka-ches-t-ve po-lu-not-for-vi-si-my-prince-zhe-t-va su-s-s-t-vo- wa-la Tran-sil-va-niya, and the western regions were under the rule of the Au-s-t-riy di-nas-tiya. But this power was weak and fragile. Gab-s-bur-gi didn't get away from-me-thread of the old so-loving con-s-ti-tu-tion of the lion-s-t-va, cog -las-but-to-swarm for-to-yes-the-tel-power the king de-lil with Go-su-dar-with-t-ve-no-so-ra-ni-em. In ko-mi-ta-tah (ko-mi-tat (in Ven-ger-s-ki meg-ye) - the main ad-mi-nis-t-ra-tiv-naya unit -tsa Ko-ro-lev-s-t-va Ven-g-riya. -was a local nobleman. Strong fe-distal nobility of Ven-g-ria, eco-no-mi-ches-ki and po-li-ti-ches-ki ho-ro-sho or-ga -no-zo-van-noe, not-one-nok-rat-but car-g-love-la-lo countless an-ti-gab-s-bur-g-s-kie bun -you and the re-establishment, op-rav-shi-esya on the armed-wives under-support of the trans-sil-van-s-of the princes and not-in-cor- ny spirit of the free-but-loving Mad-Yars. Among the noble-pat-ri-ots, not-free-of-the-Av-s-t-ri-sky for-power, the idea of ​​an-ti-gab-s-bur-g was ripe -from-the-re-establishment for the purpose of restoring the national mo-narchy.

Your world was hastily concluded at the moment when the man-chi-vaya per-s-pek-ti-wa from -g-na-niya from the country of os-ma-nov, caused speech and ra-zo-cha-ro-va-nie even among pro-gab-s-bur-g- s-ki us-t-ro-en-noy ka-to-ches-koy aris-to-ra-tii. Many of her pre-s-ta-vi-te-leys about di-us for the protection of Ven-g-riy from the present-day tu-rock, since it is in the hope of the Av-s-t-riy ef-fek -tiv-nuyu help against-tiv Port-you ven-g-ry po-sa-di-li on the pres-tol Gab-s-burg-gov.

In 1670, a dangerous conspiracy arose between the largest Vienna-ger-s and Hor-vat-s-fe-odals, who joined the secret connection with the French court, the sworn enemy of the Empire. The next year it was opened and three of the thieves were executed. Le-opold I introduced a na-em-ni-kov army into the country, established a governor-at-tor-s-t-vo headed by a grand-sme-ster German-ko-knight-tsar-with-ko-or-de-na G. Am-p-rin-gen-nom. Due to the allegation of your participation in the battle, you-sya-chi nobles were brought before the court of the military tri-bu- na-la, they were con-fis-co-va-ny for the benefit of the treasury. The highest clergy, using the soldier, carried out a merciless con-t-r-re-formation: military-for-no-ma-li pro-tes-tan-t-s-kie-k-vi-vi and schools, pro-v-ed-ni-ki and teachers at the-go-vo-ru courts from-p -were on the ha-le-ry in the slave-s-t-as usual. You-s-chi nobles, city-zhan, kre-pos-t-krest-t-yang, saving yourself from the senseless hard-cos-ti-ug- not-that-te-lei-, uk-ry-va-li in the north-eastern regions of the country near Trans-sil-va-ni-her us. Here, in 1670, the re-insurrection of the formidable and dis-sorry soldiers broke out, which was brought to the attention of the org -ni-zo-van-ny ha-rak-ter since 1678, when he was driven by a large landowner from Ned-vo-ryan Im-re Te-ke- whether.

In two years, the re-emerged under the leadership of Te-ke-li os-vo-bo-di-li from the Av-s-t-ri-tsev almost the entire the northern part of the ko-ro-lev-s-t-va. The Vienna court was forced to abandon the settlement of the dis- p-ros-t-ra-thread on Ven-g-riya ab-so-lu- tis-t-s-kuyu price-t-ra-li-za-tion. Le-opold up-raz-d-nil governor-on-tor-s-t-vo and convened in 1681 after twenty-years of re-re-ry -va Go-su-dar-s-t-ven-noe meeting, which is from-b-ra-lo in the place of Prince P. Es-ter -ha-zi. Gathering under the-t-ver-di-lo of the nobles at-vi-le-gy and dis-solving in some of the co-mi-ta- tah svo-bo-du pro-tes-tan-t-s-koy re-li-gyi. A significant part of the nobles moved away from the uprising. He was pro-long-zha-li by the kre-yans and the army of Te-ke-li, who, one-on-a-ko, was-needed to look for pok-ro-vi -tel-s-t-va sul-ta-na. This is a skom-p-ro-me-ti-ro-va-lo blissful de-lo, for which he fought, in the eyes of even his pre-given spod-vizh-kov.

War with Turkey. Karlowitz world.

The concessions of the Ven-ger-s-to-the-court of the Ven-ger-s-to-the nobles-with-t-wu were made entirely in their own way: a new war with Porta was looming. Os-ma-ny, rimmed us-pe-ha-mi pov-s-tan-ches-koy army Te-ke-li and under-s-t-re-ka-em French -with the courtyard, in the summer of 1683, during the war-actions. June 10, the 200-thousandth army of the ve-li-ko-go vi-zi-ra Kara Mus-ta-fa pri-tu-pi-la to the osa-de im-per-s-koy capital Cities. The im-per-ra-tor with the yard settled down in the safe Lin-ts, the capital of Ver-h-ney Av-s-t-rii , having thrown into the hands of fate a huge city with its 12 thousand people. The Viennese fought bravely, but their forces were too unequal, and in September they were already on the wane. At last, the European mo-nars-hi-li, that Ve-na is the last “natural-t-ven-naya” preg-ra-da on pu -you can’t hold back the tu-rok-osmans who tore into the depths of the con-ti-nen-ta. Under the influence of Pope In-no-ken-tiya XI, the king of Poland, Jan So-bes-kiy, concluded an alliance with him-per-ra- that-rum, to which-to-to-to-to-lu-chi-were carried-to-how-much-later-d-her Ve-ne-tsia, Gen-nuya, Tos-ka-na, Port-tu -Ga-lia, Is-pa-niya, and a few years later, Russia. Outside the union, the most powerful military country at that time remained - France. This is how the “Holy Li-ga” of Christ-ti-an-with-coy Ev-ro-py was formed against the Muslim-man-with-coy Os-man- s-coy im-peri. At the moment when Ka-ra Mus-ta-fa went to the decisive assault on Vienna, to help the siege -den-nym in the dos-pe-li-united-ska-s-s-yuz-ni-kov under the co-man-do-va-ni-em of the Duke of Karl-la Lo- ta-rin-g-s-ko-go and Pol-s-kaya army of Yana So-bes-ko-go. On September 12, they brought a decision to us.

In 1687, Le-opold I convened a Ven-ger-s-s-go-su-dar-s-t-ven-noe meeting and fought extremely important -nyh us-tu-pok in favor of di-nas-tiya: sos-lo-viya from-ka-za-li from the right-va you-bo-ra-ko-ro-lya, having recognized us-ice -s-t-ven-noe right of Gab-s-burgs (by husband's line) to the crown of St. Ish-t-va-na; there was from-me-no-but-the-same-ness of the “Golden Bull” (from 1222) about the military support nobles-with-t-va to-ro-lyu in the event of a conflict with them. Im-per-ra-tor-ko-role from-ka-hall-sya to bring Ven-g-rii Tran-sil-va-niu, about-to-carry-g-la-siv her sleep- cha-la you-greasy prince, and then his-ice-with-the-vein-possession.

Meanwhile, the war continued. In 1688, the im-per-tor-s-armies took the fortress of Bel-g-rad and invaded Bal-ka-ny. Obes-po-ko-en-ny Av-s-t-riy-ski-mi us-pe-ha-mi French-tsuz-s-king King Louis XIV, na-ru-shiv pe -re-mi-rie with Le-opol-dom, second-g-sya in the Palatinate, and the Av-s-t-ri-tsam had to transfer part of their forces to Germany. The war in the east was over and went on with a change of force until the av-s-t-ri- Prince Evgeny Sa-voisky did not rise up from the Russian troops. A brilliant half-co-vo-dets and a dip-lo-mat, he served in the battles for Ve-nu and Bu-du, at the age of thirty he lived -sya to fel-d-mar-sha-la. In 1697, the prince won from Zenta an is-to-ri-che-ches-kuyu-du-du, who decided the fate of Ven-g-ria and made it a riyu great der-zha-voy. A year later, in 1699, the world of Kar-lowitz was under-pi-san, which finally lived in-lu-to-ra-ve-ko- the os-man-with-to-mu yoke over a significant part of Ven-g-ria. There was almost the entire territory of the co-ro-lev-s-t-va (including Tran-sil-va-niya and Hor- va-tiya-Sla-vo-niya), due to the use of a small region in the south - Te-mesh-s-kiy Ba-nat.

The ten-year war, in the course of which the te-at-rum of military actions became almost the whole of Ven-g-ria, the opus-shi-la country -Well. In addition, they-per-ra-tor-s-kie vo-ska behaved here as if for-e-eva-te-li, without-zas-ten-chi-in-gra-bya -se-le-nie. The godly trading center of Deb-re-tsen was turned into a city of beggars in one day. Supplying the 60-80 thousand army with the whole amount fell on the shoulders of the whole nation. The court generously granted con-fis-to-baths to the Hungarian nobles of the lands of foreigners - ge-ne-ra-lam and post-tav-schi-kam army. Au-s-t-riy ab-so-lu-tism came to the realization of its plan, agreed to something -mu, according to his author, Ven-g-riu follows-up-to-work, then do poor cabbage soup and something-or-chest-.”

But already in 1697 the Christians re-emerged and the fugitive soldiers joined them (Se-ve- ro-Eastern Ven-riya). To-kai, who was famous for his vi-na-mi, became the center of the uprising. However, having no allies, no org-ga-no-za-tion, no li-ches-ko-ru-ko-vo-s-t- wow, they were patient.

War of Liberation 1701-1711

In the early 16th-2nd centuries. again sharply ob-t-ri-los gab-s-bur-g-s-ko-bur-bon-s-something so-per-ni-ches-t-vo. The death of the childless Charles II of Is-pan-s-ko led to the next great European war. -go, after-ice-not-go Gab-s-bur-ha on is-pan-with-com pres-to-le. In 1701, a war broke out for Is-pan-with-us-ice, in which we found ourselves - almost all European countries. A year later, Austria had to fight on two fronts, not only against France, but also against Ven- gry, its co- Yuz-ni-tsy. The new an-ti-gab-s-bur-g-s-movement of the twenty-five-year-old Ferenc Ra-ko- qi II (1676-1735), because of the trans-strong-van-s-princes who fought in many wars about -tiv sul-ta-na and im-pe-ra-to-ra. The very name Ra-ko-tsi was a symbol of the fight for the national non-for-vi-si-most, since against the a-v-s-t-ri -tsev fought both his stepfather Im-re Te-ke-li, and his mother, the brave Ilo-na Zri-ni, for three years (1685-1688) you- der-zhi-vav-shay osa-du av-s-t-riy-tsa-mi cre-pos-ti Mun-kach (in the city of Mu-ka-che-vo, Uk-ra-ina) .

Letter, ad-re-so-van-noe Lu-do-vi-ku XIV F. Ra-ko-tsi, was in the spring of 1701 per-reh-va-che-but av-s-t -riy-tsa-mi, and he himself is imprisoned in a fortress near Vienna. He managed to escape thanks to a lucky escape. In Poland, where he hid, envoys arrived to Ra-ko-tsi from the Cross-Yan with a request to stand at the head of the uprising. In May 1703, Ra-ko-tsi presented the cross-to-yang-with-kim to the vo-zha-kam with a sign of the re-establishment with a slogan inscribed on it : “With God for birth and freedom!” Taking advantage of the fact that the main Au-s-t-riy forces were for-you on the pas-de-de, Ra-ko-tsi quickly -t-ro os-vo-bo-dil most of the country. His army in 1704 reached the borders of Av-s-t-ria, threatening Ve-ne,

Next, in 1705, Ra-ko-tsi convened the Go-su-dar-s-t-ven-noe meeting, which, about-vi-niv Gab- s-bur-gov in the na-ru-she-niy of the con-s-ti-tu-tion of Ven-g-ria, from-ka-za-elk to be recognized as a king by him-pe-ra -ra Joseph I (1705-1711), who replaced Le-opol-da I at the Aus-t-riy pres-t. Ra-ko-tsi was pro-voz -g-la-shen, the right-ruling prince of Ven-g-ri. France provided Ven-g-rii with ma-te-ri-al-nuyu, rather sim-like help: it was equal to the sting -vanyu five thousand soldiers, while the army of Ra-ko-tsi has 70 thousand of us. in-va-la na-dezh-da for connection with fran-ko-ba-var-s-ki-mi howl-ska-mi, one-on-the-last-for- stayed in Ti-ro-le, instead of moving towards Ve-na. Besides Ev-ge-niy Sa-voy-sky and bri-tan-s-to-the Duke of Mal-bo-ro, ancestor of W. Cher-chill-lya, in the battle at Hekh-sh-ted-ta succeeded in carrying out the same fran-co-ba-var-s-kim ar-mi-yam and with-os-ta-but - move them forward to the southeast along the Danube. The French troops left for the Rhine, the strat-te-gi-ches-kaya ini-tsi-ati-va moved to Av-s-t-ria and her co-yuz-ni-kam, An-g-lii and Goll-lan-dia.

Rakoczi came to the builder-s-t-vu na-tsi-onal-no-go ven-ger-s-to-go-su-dar-s-t-va. Were there uch-re-de-ny se-nat for re-solving the most important state-su-dar-s-t-ven- affairs and eco-no-mi-ches-kiy vet, enter-de-on your own s-t-ven-naya va-lyu-ta - copper money. Na-cha-la from-da-va-t-sya first in the history of Ven-g-rii ga-ze-ta in La-tin-s-language “Mer-ku-ri-us” Very-di-kus”, new schools have opened; percentage of science and art. But the main thing is why the fate of the war and the country: to reconcile the ne-pre-mi-ri-my pro-ti-vo-speech two classes of society - in the month of the noble-s-t-va, who had already managed to seize a co-man-d- ny-zi-tions in the army and go-su-dar-s-t-ve, and the cre-pos-t-no-go kre-t-yan-s-t-va, - he never he succeeded, although he tried to alleviate the same hardship and he suffered the fate of the others more than once. In 1708, Ra-ko-tsi pos-ta-no-vil os-vo-bo-dit from the kre-pos-t-noy behind-vi-si-mos-ti kre-t-yan, who- Some will serve until the end of the war. From the fe-odal wine-nos-ties, in favor of the place-whether there were os-god-des-cre-pos-t-t-s who served in army For the first time in Hungarian history, the courtyards were not about the same. They are all-che-ki sa-bo-ti-ro-va-li these post-ta-nov-le-nia, keeping their cre-pos-t-from entering ar-miyu.

In the worse-sha-sha-shey-in-the-li-ti-ches-koy about-with-ta-new-ke Ra-ko-tsi os-t-ro needed support w-ke mo-gu-sches-t-ven-no-go so-yuz-ni-ka. Only Russia could have been like that in the current state of life at that time. In 1707, the prince entered into an alliance with Peter I, exchanged salt with him, and drank after -com in Russian-French-s-per-re-go-vo-rah. At the same time, Russia was deeply stuck in the Northern War, not with Sweden, but it also fought with the wasps. on-mi, that’s why I couldn’t provide any effective co-operation. Since 1708, from Ra-ko-tsi, military happiness has come. Strengthened fresh under-k-rep-le-ni-yami, the Av-s-t-riy troops won in Ven-gry one-on-one -follow the other one. Among the nobles, the reconciliation of us intensified. Dad-s-pres-tol is under threat from-lu-che-sweat-re-bo-val from the Viennese-s-s-s-s-ki-s-s “for the law of the king” Joseph I. Ra-ko-tsi went to Var-sha-va to meet with Peter I, in ru-chiv Shan-do-ru Ka-roy-i ko-man-do-va-nie ar-mi-ey-, as well as ve-de-nie per-re-go-vo-ditch with av-s-t -riy-tsa-mi for the purpose of taking time away. He signed the Sat-mar-s-kiy peace (1711) and you-nu-dil ven-g-row to lay down arms. The conditions of the world were comparable to us: they made a promise to respect the Con-s-ti-tu- tion of Ven-g-ria and freedom of faith. Participation in the war in am-nis-tiyu.

The amnesty was offered to Ra-ko-tsi, but the prince preferred the eternal ka-pi-tu-la-tion. From Var-sha-vy he went to Versailles, one-on-one, he couldn’t find a French support -Lya, he went to Turkey, where he lived until the end of his days. Ven-g-riya not for-vo-eva-la not-for-vi-si-mos-ti, but Sat-mar-s-kiy world interfered with Gab-s-bur-gam dis-p- growth-t-ra-thread ab-so-lu-tism on Wen-ger-s-ko-ro-lion-s-t-vo. Is-pan-with-kaya war, finished-chiv-sha-ya-ya under-pi-sa-ni-em in 1713-1714. Ut-rekh-t-s-ko-go and Rush-tat-tsko-go-go-vo-ditch, windows-cha-tel-but-li-shi-la-on-dezh-on-pri-ob-re-te -nie Av-s-t-ri-ey Is-pa-nii and is-pan-s-koy Amer-ri-ki. One-to-Gab-s-bur-gi at-about-re-li Sar-di-niu, Mi-lan, Man-tuya, Mi-ran-do-lu in Italy, Is-pan-s -Kie Ni-der-lan-dy (modern Belgium), a number of territories on the Rhine. In 1716-1718 Av-s-t-riya took away from Os-man-s-koy im-per-riy the last Viennese-ger-s-ter-ri-to-riya (Ba-nat), as well as part of Serbia with Bel-g-ra-dom, part of Bos-nia and Wa-la-chia. Thus, the empire of the Au-s-t-riy Gab-s-burgs in the early 16th-2nd centuries. reached the most significant value in the entire history of Av-s-t-rii ter-ri-to-ri-al-no-go race re-niya.

Socio-economic development of the empire.

This huge country, which is washed by the waters of Ad-ri-ati-ki, Middle-earth and Se- ver-no-go mo-ray-, still-not before-with-tav-la-la-amor-f-union-unity. There was neither a common management system, nor a common would it be possible to give some unity to the im-periy, including our own av-s-t-riy “us-ice” -s-t-ven-lands” together with the Czech-s-ki-mi, the lands of Wen-ger-s-co-rons, Belgium and Italy-yan-s- some pro-vin-tions. All parts of them were managed by their own co-ss-lov-ny uch-re-de-ni-yami, in agreement with their own -im tra-di-tsi-yam, for-to-us, custom-cha-yam. Sometimes they are controlled by Av-s-t-riy na-mes-t-ni-ki, who did not have their own ap-pa-ra -ta.

In Austria, as in Ven- g-ria, state-under-s-t-va-li fe-distant from-no-she-nations - cre-pos-t- noe right in the village, village in the city. Yad-rum im-periy os-ta-va-li av-s-t-ro-czech pro-vin-tions, where ab-so-lu-tiz-mu was successful in to a significant degree to achieve the price. Trade and ma-nu-fak-tu-ry developed here. Ru-ko-vod-s-t-vu-yas prin-tsi-pa-mi mer-kan-ti-liz-ma, go-su-dar-s-t-vo po-osch-rya-lo you- cart of cloth, silk, taffe, par-chi, and also from glass and far-for-ra and one-new-re-men-but og-ra- no-chi-va-lo im-port. In the early 16th-2nd centuries. the Go-su-dar-s-t-ven-ny bank was established, the main one, for the fi-nan-si-ro-va-niya av-s-t-ro- Czech-s-kih ma-nu-fak-tour. For you to use the Belgian port of Os-ten-de, where the company was based for overseas what a trade. On Ad-ri-ati-ka, in Tri-es-te and Fi-um (Ri-eka) some new constructions began to arise, at -is it possible to build up to-ro-gi through the Al-py, connecting them with Av-s-t-ri-ey. This activity was especially intensive under Charles VI (1711-1740).

Pragmatic sanction. War of the Austrian Succession.

The strongest dis-ease of the Gab-s-burgs was caused by the fact that they had no son, just like and direct family from the husband's side. Di-nas-tii gro-zi-lo you-mi-ra-nie. Accordingly, it was decided to change the old law on the pres-up-of-us, so that it would be possible news on the pres-tol after the death of Karl his daughter Maria Te-re-zia. In 1713, Karl pro-voz-g-la-sil Prag-ma-ti-ches-kuyu san-k-tion, which introduced us-le-do-va-nie and for women with-which line, having declared us-ice-with-t-ven-us and not-do-we-we-have all the power of the di-nas-tiya. In 1723, the san-k-tion received a prize from the Go-su-dar-with-t-ven-collection of Ven-g-ri. Ve-na made enormous efforts to achieve the formal prize for the Prag-ma-ti-ches-san. k-tion euro-pei-ski-mi dvor-ra-mi. The last of them was Versailles.

However, when the em-per-ra-tor died in 1740 and 23-year-old Maria Te-re-zia ascended to the throne, in her right, vo-re-ki -they oblige-with-you, 1the claims have been revealed not only by France and Prussia, but also by Bavaria, Spain, Sa-voy-ya. Ba-var-s-ky kur-fürst is generally pre-ten-do-val to the Av-s-t-riy throne. The first “war for the Au-s-t-riy us-ice-t-vo” (1740-1748) was waged by Prussia, having captured Si-le-zia, the most time-vi-tu-tu-tu and bo-ga-tuy of us-ice-from-t-vein-lands. From behind-pa-yes to the foreign countries of the second-city with its own troops Karl Albert Ba-var-s-kiy-, who-about-th -tiv-ni-ki Gab-s-bur-gov from-b-ra-li the king of the Czech Republic and Rome-with-kim-per-ra-to-rum (Char-lom VII; 1742 -1745).

In this crisis, Ven-g-riya saved Av-s-t-riya from destruction. Having heeded the prayers of them-per-ra-ri-tsy and forgetting their grievances, ven-g-ry pre-dos-ta-vi-li in her dis-order de-ty -thousands of troops and not a lot of money. Ma-ria Te-re-zia su-me-la quickly settled with the ba-var-tsa-mi, restored her power in Che- hii and ver-nu-la to his soup-ru-gu Fran-zu Lo-ta-rin-g-s-to-mu ti-tul rim-s-ko-go im-per-ra-to-ra . Si-le-zia, one-on-one, settled behind Friedrich II. According to the Achaean world (1748) Ma-ria Te-re-zia from the same Par-mu and Pi-atzen-tsu, but won the prize of Prag -ma-ti-ches-koy san-k-tion Ev-ro-sing.

Seven Years' War.

Maria Te-re-zia did not reconcile with Si-le-zia’s po-te-rey, for which she was ready to take off her, as she vo-ri-la, “the last-ice-skirt.” She didn’t even ask for the “ko-var-s-t-va” of An-g-liya, she didn’t lay her finger on her to help with the nope. Together with the new kan-ts-le-r Count An-to-n Wen-tse-lem Ka-uni-ts, you-da-xia dip-lo-ma-tom of the era , Ma-ria Te-re-zia pri-tu-pi-la to the sko-la-chi-va-niy of the new an-tip-Russian coalition, in the core of the re-res- motor-roar ve-ko-vye at-ori-te-you tra-di-tsi-on-noy av-s-t-riy-skaya external po-li-ti-ki. The idea of ​​a new external concept at Ka-uni-tsu, for the past so many years, has been a demon -change-but-to-g-love-lyav-she-mu external-not-by-ti-ches-ve-dom-with-t-vo (1753-1793). His usi-li-yami, user-d-but under-der-zhan-ny-mi ma-dam Pom-pa-dur, in 1756 he was under-pi-san known in an- na-lah dip-lo-ma-ti-ches-koy is-to-rii Versal-s-kiy do-go-thief, the-lo-living end of the two-ve-how enemy -between Av-s-t-ri-ey and France. London responded to this with an immediate response from the Wes-t-min-s-ter-s-with-so-uz-no-go- talk with Prussia, thereby completing the deep-lo-ma-ti-chess-ku-ku-ku of a new war.

The Seven Years' War (1756-1763) began again as a war for Si-lezia. Friedrich Ve-li-kiy, having decided to get ahead of-tiv-ni-kov, decided to go to Av-s-t-riya, ut-ver -div “preventive war” in inter-family relations in accordance with the current norms. But he woke up. Te-at-rum of military actions sta-la sa-ma Prussia. Her hundred was taken twice: sna-cha-la Russian-ski-mi and av-s-t-ri-tsa-mi, then Ven-ger-s-ki- mi gu-sa-ra-mi. Fried-ri-ha was saved from the window-cha-tel-no-go-g-ro-ma by the sudden exit from the war of Russia. Hu-ber-t-s-bur-g-s-ky peace of 1763 window-cha-tel-but zak-re-saw Si-le-zia for Prus-si-ey. Austria had to fight two more small, local wars: for Poland in 1733-1735 . and for Ba-var-with-us-ice-with-t-vo in 1778-1779.

The policy of "enlightened absolutism".

Maria Teresia and her son Joseph II, her co-ra-vi-tel and Rome's im-per-ra-tor since 1765, could to re-form yourself, the meaning and purpose of which was the creation of the state-su-dar-s-t-va “pros-ve-schen-but- go ab-so-lu-tiz-ma.” The reforms were carried out mainly in the Czech Republic, on our icy lands. They demanded a lot of money, but the treasury was always empty. The re-shi-tel-noy per-res-t-roy-ke was under-verified before all the military-en-naya and ad-mi-nis-t-ra-tiv-no-fi -nan-so-vaya spheres. Ver-bov-ka us-tu-pi-la place of price-t-ra-li-zo-van-no-mu on-bo-ru rec-ru-tov for life-long service boo; there was os-no-va-na ven-s-kaya military aka-de-mia. Sos-lov-nye institutions were-for-me-ne-use-pol-ni-tel-ny-mi or-ga-na-mi go-su-dar-s-t- vein power, on-lo-go-voe de-lo the same re-yes-but in the hand of go-su-dar-s-t-va.

Maria Te-re-zia introduced a price-based system of accounting and control: she was the first in IS -that country re-writes the villages and land ownership-; from-me-ni-la on-lo-go-vye with-vi-le-gy of the nobles and du-ho-ven-s-t-va. Near the house there was a decree-call carrying a lot of information about the -she-na bar-shchi-na up to three days in no-de-lyu instead of five - six; there was og-ra-nothing-to-judicial power over the cre-pos-t-us. In 1776, the im-per-rat-ri-tsa locked up the middle-age torture and og-ra-ni-chi-la use of death -t-the execution-in-ka-chest-ve measures on-ka-za-nia, emphasizing the criminal law.

The school reform, which laid the living foundation for the nation's education, had a huge pro-resive significance. va-niya and a well-organized pro-du-man-noy system of schools of various stud-pe-neys: from de-re-ven-with-coy “three-vi-al-noy” -”, where children were taught reading, writing and numeracy, to city and “normal” schools for rural training - some schools and universities, in which there is light and es-tes-t-ven-no-na -scientific dis-cip-li-nys are preferred before te-olo-gi-ches-ki-mi. Even more ra-di-kal-ny-mi, but for an hour ne-po-du-man-ny-mi and us-infantry under-ready-len-ny-mi became re -forms under Joseph II (1780-1790). Were there os-in-God-des-ny kre-t-yane av-s-t-ro-czech pro-vin-tions, as well as Ga-li-tions, captured -chen-noy in 1772 according to the first time of Poland, and Bu-ko-vi-ny, from-tor-g-nu-that at Os-man-with-coy them -peri in 1775 Joseph II abolished the credentials; os-vo-bo-div cross-t-yan from personal za-vi-si-mos-ti, but keep them in the wine-nos-ti.

Important value for cultural and social development of a significant part of the world -go-on-tsi-onal-im-per-rii had pro-car-g-la-she-nie de-mok-ra-ti-ches-ko-go prin-tsi-pa ver-ro -ter-pi-mos-ti. “Pa-tent about to-le-ran-t-nos-ti” (ve-ro-ter-pi-mos-ti) from-menil dis-k-ri-mi-na-tion of the Greek-co- eastern (right-vos-lav-noy-) and about-tes-tan-t-with-coy church-k-vey-, pos-vo-lil about-tes-tan-there is free-bod- but to use your religion, for the sake of society and government debts -ti, build schools and churches. Rome-s-what-any-church has many of its rights and privileges, including the rights of pro- carry around dad-s-bulls without dignity go-su-da-rya. Joseph dis-allowed the re-li-gi-oz-nye or-de-na and mo-us-you-ri, not for-mav-shi-esya “for-le-z-no-no-nos” -tew” - treating the sick, educating children, etc. Yes, personal intervention is “sacred” the same father”, having been in Ve-nu, humble-ren-but ask Joseph from-me-thread of the church-but-re-li-gi-oz - new reforms or soften them an-ti-va-ti-kan-s-kuyu direction, had no us-pe-ha.

Obsessed with the idea of ​​creating an image of a mo-de-li “pros-ve-schen-no-go ab-so-lu-tiz-ma,” Joseph II walked head-on , without taking into account the in-te-re-sa-mi not only of individual persons, but also of classes and even entire nations. He did not consider that he was acting in the name and for the benefit of the nation. But he is just as sure that he can do without the people - according to the principle of “everything for the people” , but without his participation.” Desiring to beat max-si-mal-no-go unit-no-ob-ra-zia and strict price-t-ra-li-za-tion in the management of the Los -kut-noy im-per-ri-ey-, Joseph elevated the German language to the rank of a single-s-t-ven-no-go official-tsi-al-no-go (languages-ka-de -lop-ro-from-vod-s-t-va), at the same time all the other languages ​​of the empire are ranked second grew-those-foamy. This caused the disturbance of the de-formed nations and created a powerful movement for the development of the nation -onal li-te-ra-tu-ry and cul-tu-ry. Among some Slavic peoples, this movement entered history as a movement for “national re-birth." Des-po-ti-che-ches-me-dy-of-government-you-are-not-with-free-with-t-in Belgium and Vienna -riy, by the end of the 80s of the XVI-II centuries. they found themselves on the brink of danger.

The policy of “pro-ve-shchen-no-go ab-so-lu-tiz-ma”, pro-vo-di-may Joseph Gab-s-burg, could not decide more than once -re-shi-my for-da-chu - saved fe-odalism, having brought together the old, already outlived sos-lov-no-fe-odal- new eco-no-mi-ches-kie, so-ci-al-nye and po-li-ti-ches-kie struk-tu-ry to the sweat-re-nos-tym of the new bo-zhu-az- noah era-hi. About this evidence-de-tel-s-t-va-lo of the largest-neck an-ti-fe-distal-re-rising of the kre-pos-t-kre-t-yan in Tran -sil-va-nii (1784), in which about 20-30 thousand va-la-khov and mad-yar took part.

Counter-Reformation in the Czech Republic.

You have suffered severe trials among two Slavic peoples of the Empire - the Czechs and the Slovaks. During the Thirty Years' War (1618-1648), the Czech windows (1620) lost their own the nose, for a long time, having been per-s-baked for the re-birth not-for-vi-si-mos-ti. When we united the Czech lands with our ice-s-t-ven-powers, Gab-s-burg-gi didn’t go to lic-vi-da-tion of the Czech-s-co-lion-s-t-va, since but-si-those Czech-s-co-ro-s appeared kur-für-s-ta-mi Her-man-s-koy im-per-rii, and Gab-s-bur-gi like the Av-s-t-ri-er-ts-her-tso-gi are not had the right to vote in the election of kings and the im-per-ra-to-ditch of the Holy Rome with the im-peri-rii of the German -what the hell. They could only take part in these elections in the Czech Republic. Sos-re-do-to-chiv management of Czech lands in the early 17th century. in the Viennese courtyards of the kan-tse-la-ri-yah, Gab-s-bur-gi one-new-re-men-but-soh-ra-ni-sos-lov-nye lan -d-ta-gi (se-we) of Czechia and Mora-via, indeed, with strongly ure-zan-my rights. Each of their decisions is subject to the approval of the vein-with-coy can-tery. This mother had a great soul, but she had the right to approve of the questions about size and shape. mah vy-la-you on-logov, in-si-my pra-vi-tel-with-t-vom in Vienna, and solve some-of-the-questions months -t-no-th meaning.

The feudal lords of Czechia, Moravia, Si-le-sia retained their estates. In the re-zul-ta-those re-li-gi-oz-wars and pro-long-zhav-shih pres-le-do-va-niy pro-tes-tan-tov strongly from-me -nil-xia this-ni-ches-ky sos-tav noble-s-t-va Czech-s-co-lion-s-t-va: pre-o-la-da- The German element became dominant in him. The after-ice-s-t-via of the European re-li-gi-oz-wars turned out to be no less than gu-bi-tel-for the Czech lands. us-mi and opus-shi-tel-ny-mi, than the re-zul-ta-you os-man-s-to-na-she-t-viya for the lands of ven-ger-s- to their. Almost a quarter of the sap-ra-ti-elk on-the-le-ko-lion-with-t-va St. Vats-la-va, us-chi-you-vav-she- th in the beginning of the 17th century. 3.3 million inhabitants. More than one you-sya-chi de-re-ven, 102 cities and 278 castles were ra-zo-re-no. Re-li-gi-oz-but-po-li-ti-che-ches-go-non-niy, pro-in-div-shi-esya within the framework of con-t-r-re-for-ma- tions, continued with un-os-la-be-va-power in the first ten years and even in the seventeenth century -II century, when Av-s-t-riya entered the era of “pros-ve-shchen-no-go ab-so-lu-tiz-ma.”

Carrying out the con-t-r-re-form-ma-tion, Gab-s-bur-gi from-p-rav-la-li to the eternal village in the distance Corner of the Empire of the Che-khovs and the Germans about the faith, fire and ra-zo-re-niu pre-da-va-li bib- whether-ote-ki, German and Czech books-gi an-ti-ka-to-li-ches-ko-go, an-ti-fe-odal-no-go, an- ti-gab-s-bur-g-s-to-go-holding. It is no coincidence that the 17th century in the Czech national consciousness is remembered as “the era of darkness.” Nowadays you had to part with your birth, you are a thinker, a pedagog and a philosopher Jan Amos Ko-men-s-ky (1592-1670). From the autumn of 1650, for those five years, he worked in a college (higher school) in the Ven-ger-s-city -de Sha-rosh-pa-tak, made an important contribution to the training of personnel and the development of industry in Ven- g-riy.

Economic development of the Czech Republic.

After the Seven-year-old war, during which Prussia was in charge of most of Si-le-sia, this “pearl” -noy-» gab-s-bur-g-s-koy ko-ro-ny, for-more pro-mus-len-but-developed pro-vin-tsi-ey im-peri , eco-no-mi-ches-significance of the Czech lands with their rich industrial and agricultural the veins grew unusually in ten-tsi-al. In an effort to maximize the progress of the treasury, the Viennese courtyard conducts a whole series of ad-mi-nis-t-ra-tiv -nyh reforms, the meaning of which was concluded in the strengthening of the ab-so-lu-tis-t-with-what price-t-ra-li-za-tion with the purpose of developing the natural resources of the Czech Republic. Creates a single av-s-t-ro-czech eco-no-mi-ches-kiy and ad-mi-nis-t-ra-tiv-no-po-li -ti-ches-kiy com-p-lex, managed by a single organ - the united Czech-with-Austrian can-tse-la- ri-ey. Czech Republic, Mora-via and Av-s-t-riy Si-le-zia have become very important -go, and later and the factory-rich-but-for-water-with-to-go-from-water-with-t-va, the development of something all -mer-but capable-s-t-vo-va-la po-ro-vi-tel-s-t-ven-naya ta-mo-female-but-ta-rif-naya po-li-ti -ka from the yard.

Slovakia.

In other, less favorable societies, warehouses were used that-ri-che-che-destiny of other Slav-s-s-to-go, gen-s-t-ven-no-go che-boor na-ro-da - words-va-kov . Ethnic territory of words, which entered the Ko-ro-lev-s-t-va of Ven-g-ria over time neither its emergence in the 9th-10th centuries, nor was it ever pre-dated by a special ad-mi-nis-t-ra-tiv but-go or po-li-ti-ches-ko-go tse-lo-go, sucking not-de-my parts ko-mi-ta-tov ko-ro-lev-s -t-va. Ter-ri-to-ri-al-no-ge-og-ra-fi-ches-kaya raz-de-len-nost, usu-gub-len-naya pos-d-ne church-no-re -li-gi-oz-nym ras-ko-lom words-va-kov on ka-to-li-kov and pro-tes-tan-tov, zat-rud-nya-la their eth-no-so-ci -al-new and eth-no-cultural-tour-con-co-li-da-tion, which is not a-little-spo-sob-s-t-vo-va-li-same- but the number of cities and the date of the single word price. The sky-la-gop-ri-yat-noy from this point of view was and so-ci-al-naya struc-tu-ra na-se-le-niya. There are few, no-numbers, sokh-ra-niv-sha-yasya pre-im-s-t-ven-but in the mountainous regions there is a layer of middle and small-to-the-noble-s-t-va sos-tav-la-la in-teg-ral-nuyu part of the ven-ger-with-to-the-noble-s-t-va yes in those rare cases when some of her pre-s-ta-vi-te-were used by one of the di-alec- tov slo-vac-ko-go.

With race-ch-le-ne-ni-em Ko-ro-lev-s-t-va Ven-g-riya and ut-ver-zh-de-ni-em os-man-s-co-go -dy-ches-t-va above the middle part of Ven-g-rii, the center of the state-su-dar-s-t-ven-life of the gab-s-bur-g-s-coy Ven- g-rii (under-in-las-t-noy Gab-s-bur-gam chas-ti ko-ro-lev-s-t-va) moved to the north and here -ve-ro-za-pad. The influx of refugees, as well as the economic development, caused this ta-va ter-ri-to-riy-, on-se-len-nyh words-va-ka-mi. Once upon a time in the 17th century. there was a process of wording of certain cities, whereby you are not a German element. that spo-sob-s-t-vo-va-li ven-ger-s-noble-s-t-vo and Go-su-dar-s-t-ven-noe meeting. In the 17th century and in the first decades of the 16th-2nd centuries. on these lands the main co-existence of an-ti-gab-s-bur-g-s-os-os-in-bo-di-tel-nyh developed wars and uprisings of the Ven-ger-s-to-ro-yes, in which there are no participation and words. But one day, wars led to the destruction and decline of pro-div-in forces, the reduction of would-be coal, bla-go-ro-d-metals, to the decline of cities and cultural

The national question and the crisis of the monarchy

The nature and characteristics of the revolutionary process in the Habsburg monarchy were determined by the large number of peoples inhabiting it and the contradictory nature of their socio-economic and political goals. In 1843, the territory of the empire was inhabited by a little more than 29 million people. Of these, 15.5 million were Slavic peoples, there were 7 million Germans, 5.3 million Hungarians, 1 million Romanians, 0.3 million Italians. Without forming a quantitative majority, the Austrians dominated the empire, discriminating against the Slavs of Bohemia directly subordinate to Vienna (Czech Republic), Galicia, Silesia, Slovenia, Dalmatia, Italians of the Lombardo-Venetian region. The Magyars of Hungary, seeking to restore their lost statehood and, therefore, being in a state of conflict with the Habsburgs, themselves suppressed the Rusyns of Transcarpathia, Slovaks, South Slavs of Croatia and Slavonia, the Serbs of Vojvodina, and the Romanians of Transylvania, who were made administratively dependent on them. In the lands of the Hungarian crown, the Magyars not only held the administrative apparatus in their hands, but also concentrated a significant part of land ownership, collecting feudal duties from the peasants.
The inequality of the peoples of the empire put forward the objective task of national revival. Therefore, bourgeois transformations, which for Austria meant the destruction of the remnants of feudal economic relations and the transition from an absolutist to a constitutional form of government, in other parts of the empire led not only to the same result, but also to the establishment of their own statehood. The latter threatened the collapse of the Habsburg monarchy. It is not surprising that the Viennese court and Chancellor Metternich considered the inviolability of established foundations, bureaucratic management, unlimited police control over the activities of the intelligentsia and total supervision of the press to be the basis for preserving the empire. The suppression of glasnost went so far as to ban the publication of books with political content and the import of liberal works from England and France, even if they were not included in the index of prohibited books compiled by the Roman Curia.
The development of the state was hampered by ossified political structures. Since 1835, Ferdinand 1 was emperor, periodically plunging into severe depression. Under him, all affairs were in charge of the triumvirate (from the Latin triumviratus - three + + husband): the emperor's uncle Archduke Ludwig, Prince Metternich and Count Kolovrat. The rivalry between them made it impossible to make the necessary decisions. This had disastrous consequences for the monarchy, as the situation in the country became increasingly tense. Despite the police regime, the reform movement grew in the empire. The demands for their implementation were made by the bourgeois nobility, the bourgeoisie and the intelligentsia. These social strata were interested in capitalist transformations. Remaining moderately oppositional and liberal, they sought a transition to a constitutional monarchy, the abolition of feudal duties for ransom, and the abolition of guilds. The consolidation of reform supporters led to the creation of several organizations: the Political-Legal Club, the Industrial Union, the Lower Austrian Industrial Association, and the Concordia Writers' Union. Opposition literature was distributed in Vienna and the provinces.

Revolution of 1848 in Austria

In February 1848, when news of the revolution in France became known, muted fermentation grew into actions of direct pressure on the government. During March 3-12, a group of deputies of the Landtag of Lower Austria, which included Vienna, the Industrial Union, and university students presented, although at different times and separately, essentially similar demands: to convene an all-Austrian parliament, reorganize the government, abolish censorship and introduce freedom words. The government hesitated, and on March 13, the Landtag building was surrounded by crowds of people, slogans sounded: “Down with Metternich... Constitution... People's Representation.” Clashes initiated by people from the crowd with the troops entering the city began, and the first victims appeared. Things came to the barricades, and the students also created a paramilitary organization - the Academic Legion. Soon the formation of a national guard began from people who had “property and education,” i.e. bourgeoisie.
The Academic Legion and the National Guard formed committees that began to actively intervene in the events that took place. The balance of forces changed, and the emperor was forced to agree to arm the bourgeois formations, resigned Metgernich and sent him as ambassador to London. The government proposed a draft constitution, but Bohemia (Czech Republic) and Moravia refused to recognize it. In turn, the Viennese committees of the Academic Legion and the National Guard regarded this document as an attempt to preserve absolutism and responded by creating a joint Central Committee. The government decision to dissolve it was followed by the demand, reinforced by the construction of barricades, for the withdrawal of troops from Vienna, the introduction of universal suffrage, the convening of a Constituent Assembly and the adoption of a democratic constitution. The government retreated again and promised to fulfill all this, but at the insistence of the emperor, it did the opposite: it issued an order to disband the Academic Legion. The inhabitants of Vienna responded with new barricades and the creation on May 26, 1848, of a Committee of Public Safety made up of municipal councilors, national guardsmen and students. He took upon himself the protection of order and control over the government's fulfillment of its obligations. The Committee's influence extended so far that it insisted on the resignation of the Minister of the Interior and proposed the composition of a new government, which included representatives of the liberal bourgeoisie.
The imperial court, powerless, was forced to resign itself. The emperor himself was not in Vienna at that time; on May 17, without even notifying the ministers, he left for Innsbruck, the administrative center of Tyrol. The Vienna garrison barely numbered 10 thousand soldiers. The main part of the army, led by Field Marshal Windischgrätz, was busy suppressing the uprising that began on June 12, 1848 in Prague, and then got bogged down in Hungary. The best troops in Austria, Field Marshal Radetzky, pacified the rebellious Lombardo-Venetian region and fought with the army of Sardinia, which tried to take advantage of the favorable moment and annex the Italian possessions of Austria.
Nothing could prevent the holding of elections to the first Austrian Reichstag; they took place and gave a majority to representatives of the liberal bourgeoisie and peasantry. This composition determined the nature of the laws adopted: they were repealed
feudal duties, and personal seigneurial rights (suzerain power, patrimonial court) without remuneration, and duties related to land use (corvee, tithe) - for ransom. The state undertook to reimburse a third of the redemption amount, the rest was to be paid by the peasants themselves. The abolition of feudal relations opened the way for the development of capitalism in agriculture. The solution to the agrarian question had the consequence that the peasantry moved away from the revolution. The stabilization of the situation allowed Emperor Ferdinand I to return to Vienna on August 12, 1848.
The last major uprising of the people of Vienna took place on October 6, 1848, when students from the Academic Legion, national guardsmen, workers, and artisans tried to prevent part of the Vienna garrison from being sent to suppress the uprising in Hungary. During street fighting, the rebels took possession of the arsenal, seized weapons, broke into the War Ministry and hanged Minister Bayeux de Latour from a street lamp.
The day after these events, Emperor Ferdinand I fled to Olmutz, a powerful fortress in Moravia, and Windischgrätz, pushing back the Hungarian revolutionary army rushing to Vienna, occupied the Austrian capital after three days of fighting on November 1, 1848. The critical situation allowed the upper echelons of power to achieve the abdication of Ferdinand in favor of his nephew Franz Joseph, who ascended the throne on December 2, 1848 and remained emperor for 68 years, until 1916. The imperial manifestos of March 4, 1849 dissolved the Reichstag and octroied (granted) a constitution, called Olmütz. It applied to both Austria and Hungary, was based on the principle of the integrity and indivisibility of the state, but was never applied in practice and was formally abolished on December 31, 1851.

Revolution of 1848-1849 in Hungary

The revolutionary wave in March 1848 also swept Hungary. At the beginning of the month
the leader of the noble opposition, Lajos Kossuth, proposed a program of bourgeois-democratic reforms to the Sejm. It provided for the adoption of the Hungarian constitution, reforms, and the appointment of a government responsible to parliament. Demonstrations and rallies in support of change began in Pest. On March 15, 1848, students, artisans, workers led by the poet Sandor Petőfi seized the printing house and printed a list of demands - “12 points”, among which one of the main ones were: freedom of speech and press, national government, withdrawal of non-Hungarian military units from the country and the return to the Hungarian homeland, the unification of Transylvania and Hungary.
The laws adopted by the Sejm, bourgeois in content, provided for the abolition of corvée and church tithes. Peasants who had corvee plots (and they made up about a third of all cultivated land) received them as property. The issue of ransom payments was postponed for the future. Although out of the 1.5 million peasants liberated by the revolution, only about 600 thousand became land owners, the agrarian reform undermined the feudal-serf system in Hungary. The constitutional reform preserved the monarchy, but transformed the country's political system, which was reflected in the establishment of a government responsible to parliament, the expansion of suffrage and the annual convening of the Sejm, the introduction of jury trials, and the establishment of freedom of the press. In the field of national relations, a complete merger with Transylvania and recognition of the Magyar language as the only state language were envisaged. On March 17, 1848, the first independent government of Hungary began its activities. It was headed by one of the opposition leaders, Count Lajos Batteanu, and Kossuth, who took the post of Minister of Finance, played an influential role in the cabinet. Emperor Ferdinand I (in Hungary he bore the title of King Ferdinand V) initially tried to repeal the laws adopted by the Diet, but mass demonstrations in Pest and in Vienna itself forced him to approve the Hungarian reforms in early April.
At the same time, the Hungarian nobility, for fear of losing their dominant position in the kingdom and the collapse of it itself, opposed national movements. Therefore, the government did nothing in the specific interests of the Slavic and Romanian territories of the Hungarian crown. The refusal to recognize their national equality, to provide self-government, and to guarantee the free development of language and culture turned the national movements that were initially sympathetic to the Hungarian revolution into allies of the Habsburg monarchy.
This trend turned out to be dominant in all non-Magyar lands subordinate to Hungary. Convened on March 25, 1848, the Croatian estate Sejm-Sabor developed a program that provided for the abolition of feudal duties, the creation of an independent government and its own army, and the introduction of the Croatian language in administrative institutions and courts. The response to the great power policy of Hungary, which deprived Croatia of any rights to autonomy, was the decision taken by the Sabor in June 1848 to recreate Croatian statehood in the form of the Croatian-Slavono-Dalmatian Kingdom under the supreme authority of the Habsburgs. The interethnic conflict led to a war with Hungary, which was started in September 1848 by the Croatian ban Josip Jelacic.
The Hungarian-Croatian clash did not end the ethnic contradictions. When Slovakia demanded to recognize the Slovak language as the official language, to open a Slovak university and schools, and to provide territorial autonomy with its own Sejm, the Hungarian government only intensified the repression. Regarding the national problems of the Serbs, Kossuth said that “the sword will decide the dispute.” Non-recognition of the rights of the Serbs led to the proclamation in May 1848 of the “Serbian Vojvodina” with its government and the subsequent attempt by the Hungarians to suppress the Serbian movement by force. The Austrian Habsburgs, having recognized the separation of Vojvodina from Hungary, turned this clash to their advantage. The Hungarian law on union with Transylvania, which recognized only the personal equality of its citizens, but did not establish national-territorial autonomy, and here provoked an anti-Magyar uprising that began in mid-September 1848.
Hungary's desire for independence caused sharp opposition from Emperor Ferdinand, who on September 22, 1848 made a statement regarded as a declaration of war. In order to better prepare for it, the Hungarians restructured their leadership: the Batteanu government resigned and gave way to the Defense Committee headed by Kossuth. The national army he created defeated Jelacic's troops, drove them back to the borders of Austria, and then itself entered Austrian territory. This success turned out to be short-lived. On October 30, the Hungarians were defeated in a battle near Vienna. In mid-December, Windischgrätz's army moved hostilities to Hungary and in January 1849 captured its capital.
Military failures did not force Hungary to submit. Moreover, after Ferdinand's abdication, the Diet refused to consider Franz Joseph as King of Hungary until he recognized the Hungarian constitutional order. The Hungarian constitution did not correspond to the ideas of the Viennese court about the state structure of the empire, and this, along with the Austrian internal political factors themselves, prompted Franz Joseph to consecrate, as already noted, the Olmütz Constitution. According to it, Hungary was deprived of all independence and transferred to the position of a province of the Habsburg Empire, which did not suit the Hungarian nobility and bourgeoisie at all. As a consequence, on April 14, 1849, the Diet of Hungary overthrew the Habsburg dynasty, proclaimed the independence of Hungary and elected Kossuth as head of the executive branch with the status of ruler. Now the Austro-Hungarian conflict could only be resolved by force of arms.
In the spring of 1849, Hungarian troops won a number of victories. Their commander, General Artur Görgei, is believed to have had the opportunity to capture virtually defenseless Vienna, but was bogged down in a long siege of Buda. Opinions are expressed that Görgei claimed the first role and, not being satisfied with the position of Minister of War and Commander-in-Chief, betrayed the cause of the revolution. Whether this is true or not, the Austrian monarchy received a respite, and Emperor Franz Joseph turned to the Russian Emperor Nicholas I with a request for help.
The invasion of Field Marshal Paskevich's 100,000-strong army into Hungary and a 40,000-strong corps into Transylvania in June 1849 predetermined the defeat of the Hungarian revolution. The hopelessly late law on the equality of the peoples inhabiting the Hungarian state was no longer able to help her. On August 13, 1849, the main forces of the Hungarian army, together with Görgei, laid down their arms. During the repressions, military courts handed down about five thousand death sentences. Görgei’s life was spared, but he was sent to prison for 20 years, but the head of the first government, Battyana, and 13 generals of the Hungarian army were executed. Kossuth emigrated to Turkey.

Results of the revolution of 1848-1849. in the Habsburg Monarchy

The defeat of the revolution led to the restoration of absolutism in the empire, but its restoration was not complete. The abolition of feudal duties was a major socio-economic transformation due to the emergence of a class of independent peasant owners. A return to the previous feudal order became impossible.
At the same time, a period of severe reaction began in the national political sphere. The abolition of Austro-Hungarian dualism led to the subordination of Hungarian officials to a military and civil governor appointed by Vienna. The territory of Hungary proper was divided into five imperial governorships. Transylvania, Croatia-Slavonia, Serbian Vojvodina and Temisvár Banat, previously administratively subordinate to Hungary, were placed under direct Austrian control. Throughout the empire, police supervision was strengthened and a corps of gendarmes was created to oversee political reliability. The Law on Unions and Assemblies placed public organizations under the strictest control of the authorities. All periodicals were required to pay a deposit and submit one copy to the authorities an hour before publication. Retail sales and posting of newspapers on the streets were banned. The Germanization of the empire intensified. The German language was declared the state language and compulsory for administration, legal proceedings, and public education in all parts of the empire. The unresolved national and democratic problems throughout the subsequent time will constantly confront the empire with the need to overcome growing political crises until it finally collapses under their weight.